ELLT Notes – MA Part 2 Semester 3 SPPU

Unit One

Theories of Language Learning

Behaviorism Cognitivism Bloom's Taxonomy Acquisition vs Learning Krashen

Unit I · Topic 1

Behaviorism and Language Learning

What is Behaviorism?

Behaviorism is a theory that says all learning — including language learning — happens through behavior, not through thinking or the mind. Behaviorists believe that we cannot study the mind directly, but we can study behavior because we can see and measure it.

📖 Definition

Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on observable behavior. It says that learning happens when a stimulus (input) produces a response (output), and this response is reinforced (rewarded or punished) to shape future behavior.

Key Thinker: B.F. Skinner

The most famous behaviorist in education is B.F. Skinner. He developed the idea of Operant Conditioning. He believed:

Language is a type of verbal behavior
Children learn language by imitating adults
Correct responses are reinforced (praised/rewarded)
Wrong responses are ignored or corrected
Through repetition, correct habits are formed

The Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement Model

This is the heart of Behaviorism in language learning. It works like this:

🏫 Indian Classroom Example

Stimulus: Teacher says – "What is this?" (pointing to a pencil)

Response: Student says – "This is a pencil."

Reinforcement: Teacher says – "Very good! Excellent!"

→ The student repeats this behavior in future because it was rewarded.

Key Features of Behaviorism

Learning = Habit Formation: Language is learned by forming correct habits through repetition
Imitation is key: Children copy what they hear around them
Error correction: Mistakes must be corrected immediately to avoid wrong habits
Drill and Practice: Repeated exercises help fix language patterns in the mind
Positive Reinforcement: Praise, rewards, and encouragement increase correct behavior
Negative Reinforcement/Punishment: Reduces wrong behavior

Role of Behaviorism in the Classroom

Teachers use drills and repetition exercises
Language labs with listen-and-repeat activities
Grammar exercises with immediate feedback
Flash cards, pattern practice
Teachers reward correct answers verbally ("Good!", "Perfect!")
Immediate correction of pronunciation and grammar errors

Advantages of Behaviorism

Simple and easy to apply in class
Useful for building basic vocabulary and grammar habits
Good for young learners who need structured practice
Drills help students remember patterns automatically
Works well for pronunciation training

Limitations of Behaviorism

Ignores the role of the mind and thinking in language learning
Drills are boring and mechanical — no creativity
Students may memorize without understanding meaning
Does not explain how children create new sentences they have never heard before
Over-correction can make students afraid of speaking

💡 Conclusion

Behaviorism gave the world important tools like drills, practice exercises, and reinforcement. But it is not enough on its own because language is not just behavior — it involves complex thinking and meaning-making. That is why Cognitivism emerged as an alternative.

Unit I · Topic 2

Cognitivism and Language Learning

What is Cognitivism?

Cognitivism is a learning theory that says learning is a mental process. It focuses on what happens inside the mind — how we receive, store, process, and use information. Unlike Behaviorism, Cognitivism accepts that the mind matters.

📖 Definition

Cognitivism is a learning theory that sees the learner as an active thinker, not just a passive receiver. Learning is the process of acquiring, organizing, and storing knowledge in the mind through thinking, understanding, and problem-solving.

Key Ideas in Cognitivism

Mental Processes: Learning involves attention, memory, thinking, and understanding
Prior Knowledge: New information connects with what we already know (called "schema")
Active Learner: The student is not passive — they actively make sense of new information
Problem Solving: Learning happens when students face challenges and work through them
Memory: Short-term memory and long-term memory play key roles in language learning

Cognitivism vs Behaviorism — Key Differences

Point	Behaviorism	Cognitivism
Focus	Observable behavior	Mental processes / thinking
Learner Role	Passive receiver	Active thinker
Learning Method	Drill, repetition, imitation	Understanding, problem-solving
Error	Always correct immediately	Errors show learning is in progress
Key Concept	Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement	Schema, memory, comprehension
Famous Thinker	B.F. Skinner	Piaget, Chomsky, Ausubel

Role of Memory in Language Learning

Working Memory (Short-term): We hold new words/phrases in our mind briefly while processing them
Long-term Memory: Information that is understood and practiced moves to long-term memory
Retrieval: We recall language from memory when we need to speak or write
Meaningful Learning: Ausubel said we learn better when new knowledge connects to existing knowledge

Application in the ELT Classroom

🏫 Classroom Examples

Teacher asks students to predict meaning of new words from context before giving definitions
Use of concept maps and mind maps to organize vocabulary
Discussion activities that require students to think and form opinions
Reading comprehension with inference questions
Grammar taught through discovery learning — students find the rule themselves

Chomsky's Contribution (Innatism — related to Cognitivism)

Noam Chomsky challenged Behaviorism. He said children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) — a natural ability to learn language. This explains why children learn complex grammar naturally without formal teaching. This view is cognitive because it focuses on the mind's innate ability.

💡 Conclusion

Cognitivism shifted the focus from behavior to the mind. It helped teachers understand that students need to understand, not just memorize. Modern ELT uses many cognitive strategies — prediction, inference, discussion, and discovery learning — all because of Cognitivism.

Unit I · Topic 3

Bloom's Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy — Revised (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) — Lowest to Highest

What is Bloom's Taxonomy?

Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of thinking skills from simple to complex. It was created by Benjamin Bloom in 1956 and revised by Anderson and Krathwohl in 2001.

📖 Definition

Bloom's Taxonomy is a framework of educational objectives that arranges cognitive skills from the lowest level (Remembering) to the highest level (Creating). It helps teachers design learning goals, activities, and assessments that develop different levels of thinking.

The Six Levels — Revised Bloom's Taxonomy

Level

What the Learner Does

ELT Example Activity

1. Remember

Recall facts, definitions, basic information

Define "metaphor"; recall vocabulary list

2. Understand

Explain ideas in own words

Summarize a passage; paraphrase a poem

3. Apply

Use knowledge in a new situation

Use new vocabulary in sentences; apply grammar rule

4. Analyze

Break down content, find patterns

Identify figures of speech in a poem; compare characters

5. Evaluate

Justify a decision; assess quality

Critique an argument; judge which essay is better written

6. Create

Design, produce, compose something new

Write an original story; compose a poem; design a speech

Why Bloom's Taxonomy Matters for English Teaching

It helps teachers ask questions at different levels of difficulty
Low-level questions test memory; high-level questions test thinking
It ensures teaching goes beyond rote learning
It helps design better exam questions
It guides teachers to develop all cognitive abilities of students

Classroom Application in ELT

🏫 Example: Teaching a Short Story

Remember: "Who are the main characters in the story?"
Understand: "What is the main theme of the story?"
Apply: "Write a new ending for the story."
Analyze: "How does the author use dialogue to reveal character?"
Evaluate: "Is the protagonist's decision justified? Why?"
Create: "Write a similar story set in your own village/town."

Bloom's and Question Formation

In university exams, question papers often test different Bloom's levels. Students should identify the level being asked:

"Define / State / List" → Remember level
"Explain / Describe / Summarize" → Understand level
"Illustrate / Use / Demonstrate" → Apply level
"Compare / Examine / Distinguish" → Analyze level
"Assess / Justify / Critique" → Evaluate level
"Design / Compose / Create" → Create level

💡 Conclusion

Bloom's Taxonomy is a practical tool for teachers. It helps design activities and questions that move students from simple memorization to deep thinking and creativity. Every English teacher should use it to ensure their teaching develops all levels of cognition.

Unit I · Topic 4

Language Acquisition vs Language Learning & Krashen's Hypotheses

Krashen's Five Hypotheses — Overview

The Core Difference

📖 Language Acquisition

Language Acquisition is the natural, unconscious process by which a child picks up their first language (mother tongue). It happens automatically through exposure and interaction — without any formal teaching.

📖 Language Learning

Language Learning is the conscious, formal process of studying a language — usually in a classroom setting. It involves learning grammar rules, vocabulary, and practicing skills deliberately.

Key Differences

Point	Language Acquisition	Language Learning
Process	Unconscious, natural	Conscious, deliberate
Setting	Home, community, natural environment	Classroom, formal instruction
Age	Mainly childhood (0–12 years)	Any age, usually school age
Grammar	Internalized naturally	Explicitly taught and studied
Result	Fluency and natural use	Accuracy but may lack fluency
Example	Child learning Marathi at home	Student learning English in college

Stephen Krashen's Five Hypotheses

Stephen Krashen is one of the most important scholars in language education. He proposed five hypotheses about how people learn second languages:

1. THE ACQUISITION–LEARNING HYPOTHESIS

There are two separate systems: acquisition (subconscious) and learning (conscious). Only acquisition leads to fluency. Learning helps monitor correctness but does not produce natural language.

2. THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS

The consciously learned language acts as a Monitor — it checks and corrects our speech/writing before we produce it. But over-monitoring makes speakers hesitant and slow.

3. THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS

Language structures are acquired in a predictable, natural order — regardless of which language is taught first in class. Teachers cannot change this order.

4. THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS (i + 1)

Language is acquired when learners receive comprehensible input that is slightly above their current level. If the current level is "i", the input should be "i + 1" — a little challenging but understandable. Example: A student can understand simple sentences (i). The teacher uses slightly complex sentences with visual support (i+1).

5. THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS

Emotional factors like anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence affect language learning. A high affective filter (high anxiety, low confidence) blocks language acquisition. Teachers must create a safe, low-anxiety classroom environment.

Practical Implications for the ELT Classroom

Create a friendly, supportive class atmosphere to lower the affective filter
Provide comprehensible input — use visuals, simple language with support
Encourage reading and listening for natural language exposure
Do not force students to speak before they are ready (Silent Period)
Grammar correction should be gentle and not anxiety-inducing

💡 Conclusion

Krashen's hypotheses remain highly influential in ELT. They remind teachers that natural exposure, emotional safety, and meaningful input are more important than mechanical drilling. The goal is to make the classroom feel like a natural environment for language use.

Quick Revision — Unit I Key Terms

Behaviorism
Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
Skinner's learning model
Cognitivism
Learning as mental process
Schema
Prior knowledge structure
LAD
Language Acquisition Device (Chomsky)
Bloom's Taxonomy
6 cognitive levels
i + 1
Comprehensible input (Krashen)
Affective Filter
Emotional barrier to learning
Acquisition
Natural, unconscious
Learning
Formal, conscious
Monitor Hypothesis
Conscious learning checks output
Natural Order
Fixed sequence of acquisition

Expected University Questions — Unit I

Based on examination patterns for MA English ELLT Paper

Long Answer Questions (15–20 Marks)

Explain Behaviorism as a theory of language learning. Discuss its application in the English language classroom with suitable examples.
Compare and contrast Behaviorism and Cognitivism as theories of language learning. Which is more useful in the modern ELT classroom?
Discuss Bloom's Taxonomy in detail. How can it be applied in English Language Teaching at the undergraduate level?
Explain Krashen's five hypotheses of second language acquisition. Discuss their implications for the ELT classroom.
Distinguish between Language Acquisition and Language Learning with suitable examples. Refer to Krashen's views.

Short Notes (5–7 Marks)

Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement Model
Skinner's contribution to language teaching
The role of memory in language learning
Bloom's revised taxonomy and classroom questions
Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis
The Input Hypothesis (i + 1)
Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Model Answer Points — Krashen's Hypotheses

Five hypotheses: Acquisition-Learning, Monitor, Natural Order, Input, Affective Filter
Acquisition = unconscious; Learning = conscious
Monitor = internal editor using learned knowledge
Input must be comprehensible (i + 1)
Anxiety/low confidence = high affective filter = blocks acquisition
Classroom implication: safe environment + meaningful input + reading

Common Student Mistakes — Unit I

Confusing Acquisition (natural) with Learning (formal) — they are opposites
Writing "Bloom's Taxonomy has 7 levels" — it has 6 levels
Saying "Krashen developed Behaviorism" — Skinner developed Behaviorism; Krashen is related to Cognitivism
Forgetting to give classroom examples — always add examples for full marks
Writing Bloom's levels in wrong order — start from Remembering (lowest) to Creating (highest)
Ignoring the Affective Filter — this is often asked as a short note

Unit Two

Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching

Method · Approach · Technique GTM · Direct · Structural · CLT Multiple Intelligences ICT · CALL · MALL · AI

Unit II · Topic 1

Method, Approach, and Technique

Understanding the Three Terms

These three terms are often confused. Anthony (1963) first explained the relationship between them clearly. Think of them as a hierarchy from theory to practice:

📖 Approach

An approach is a set of theoretical beliefs about the nature of language and how it is learned. It is the philosophy or perspective behind language teaching. Example: "Language is best learned through real communication" → This is the Communicative Approach.

📖 Method

A method is a systematic plan or procedure for teaching a language, based on a particular approach. It specifies what to teach and how to teach. Example: Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a method based on the communicative approach.

📖 Technique

A technique is a specific classroom activity or exercise used to implement a method. It is the actual what happens in the classroom. Example: Role-play is a technique used in CLT.

Comparison Table

Feature	Approach	Method	Technique
Level	Theory / Philosophy	Plan / System	Classroom Activity
Abstract?	Most abstract	Semi-abstract	Concrete and practical
Example	Communicative approach	CLT method	Role-play activity
Designed by	Linguists/Theorists	Curriculum designers	Teachers in class

🏫 Simple Analogy for Students

Think of building a house:
Approach = The architect's belief ("Homes should be eco-friendly")
Method = The building plan/blueprint
Technique = The specific tools and steps used (laying bricks, painting walls)

Unit II · Topic 2

Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

What is the Grammar Translation Method?

The Grammar Translation Method (GTM) is one of the oldest methods of language teaching. It was originally used to teach Latin and Greek in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. It later spread to modern language teaching.

📖 Definition

GTM is a method that teaches language through the study of grammar rules and translation between the target language and the learner's mother tongue. The focus is on reading and writing, not speaking or listening.

Key Features

The mother tongue is used extensively in the classroom
Grammar is taught explicitly and deductively (rules first, then examples)
Students read literary texts in the target language and translate them
Vocabulary is taught in isolated word lists with mother-tongue translations
Writing and reading are given priority; speaking and listening are neglected
Student errors are corrected immediately and thoroughly
The teacher is the authority; student participation is limited

Advantages

Helps students understand complex grammar rules clearly
Good for reading literary texts and understanding them deeply
Easy to implement — requires no special equipment
Useful in large classrooms
Good for exam preparation where grammar is tested

Limitations

Ignores speaking and listening skills completely
Students cannot communicate in real life despite years of study
Boring and mechanical — reduces student interest
Translation can create wrong habits (thinking in mother tongue, then translating)
Does not develop communicative competence

🏫 Indian Classroom Example

Teacher writes: "The cat sat on the mat."
Student translates it into Marathi and identifies the subject, verb, and object.
Teacher gives grammar rule: "A sentence needs a subject and a verb."
→ This is a typical GTM lesson. Still widely used in many rural Maharashtra schools.

Unit II · Topic 3

The Direct Method

Background and Definition

The Direct Method emerged in the late 19th century as a reaction against GTM. It was championed by Charles Berlitz. The main idea is simple: teach English in English.

📖 Definition

The Direct Method teaches language directly in the target language, without using the mother tongue. New vocabulary is taught through objects, actions, pictures, and demonstrations, not through translation.

Key Features

No mother tongue is used in the classroom
Meaning is conveyed through real objects (realia), pictures, gestures, and actions
Grammar is taught inductively — from examples to rules
Speaking and listening are emphasized
Oral communication and everyday vocabulary are the focus
Only correct forms are produced and accepted (errors are not discussed)

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages	Limitations
Develops oral fluency	Difficult to explain abstract concepts without L1
Creates English-thinking habit	Requires highly proficient teacher
More natural, engaging lessons	Hard to implement in large classes
Avoids translation dependency	Not ideal for beginners with no English background

🏫 Classroom Example

Teacher holds a book and says "This is a book." Then holds a pen: "This is a pen." Shows action: "I am writing." Students imitate. No Marathi is used at all. New words are demonstrated, not translated.

Unit II · Topic 4

The Structural Method

Background and Definition

The Structural Method is based on structural linguistics and the Behaviorist theory of learning. It was popular in the 1950s–70s. It focuses on teaching language as a system of structures (grammar patterns).

📖 Definition

The Structural Method teaches language by presenting and practicing grammatical structures in a graded, sequential order — from simple to complex. Mastery of each structure is achieved through repetitive practice (drills).

Key Features

Language is taught as a set of structures (patterns)
Structures are arranged in order of difficulty — graded syllabus
Heavy use of drills and pattern practice
Spoken language is given priority over written
New structures are introduced one at a time
Based on Behaviorist habit formation

Types of Drills Used

Repetition Drill: "Repeat after me: I go to school."
Substitution Drill: "I go to school / market / hospital"
Transformation Drill: Change positive to negative: "I go → I don't go"
Question-Answer Drill: "Do you eat rice? — Yes, I eat rice."

🏫 Indian Classroom Context

This method was used extensively in India in the 1960s–80s, especially in government schools. Many older textbooks in Maharashtra are based on structural syllabi — moving from simple sentences to complex ones gradually.

Unit II · Topic 5

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

What is CLT?

CLT is the most widely used method in modern ELT. It emerged in the 1970s in Britain as a reaction to GTM and Structural approaches. The goal of CLT is communicative competence — the ability to use language effectively in real situations.

📖 Definition

CLT is a teaching approach that emphasizes communication as the primary goal of language learning. It focuses on meaning, real-life language use, interaction between learners, and developing the ability to communicate appropriately in different situations.

Communicative Competence (Dell Hymes)

Dell Hymes coined the term "communicative competence." He said language competence is not just knowing grammar (linguistic competence) — it also includes:

Grammatical Competence: Correct use of language rules
Sociolinguistic Competence: Using language appropriately in social contexts
Discourse Competence: Connecting sentences logically
Strategic Competence: Using communication strategies when stuck

Key Principles of CLT

Focus on meaning, not just form
Use of real-life tasks and authentic materials
Learner-centered approach — students are active participants
Pair work and group work are encouraged
Fluency is prioritized over perfect accuracy
Errors are tolerated if communication is successful
Language is used for a purpose — to achieve communicative goals

CLT Classroom Activities

Role-Play: Students act as doctor-patient, shopkeeper-customer, etc.
Information Gap: Student A has info Student B needs — they must communicate to complete the task
Simulation: Recreate real-life situations (booking a ticket, job interview)
Debates and Discussions: Students express and defend opinions
Problem-Solving Tasks: Groups solve a real or hypothetical problem

Comparison: GTM vs CLT

Feature	GTM	CLT
Goal	Read and translate literary texts	Communicate effectively in real life
Focus	Grammar and vocabulary (form)	Meaning and communication
Language Use	Mother tongue used freely	Target language used throughout
Activities	Translation, grammar exercises	Role-play, discussion, tasks
Errors	Immediately corrected	Tolerated if meaning is clear
Teacher Role	Authority / Knowledge giver	Facilitator / Organizer
Student Role	Passive receiver	Active communicator

💡 Conclusion

CLT is the most relevant method for today's English teaching because the goal of language is communication. However, in rural Maharashtra classrooms with large class sizes and limited resources, CLT needs to be adapted carefully. Many teachers use a mixed approach — some structural practice + CLT activities.

Unit II · Topic 6

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

What are Multiple Intelligences?

In 1983, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single ability measured by IQ. Instead, he said humans have multiple types of intelligences — different ways of being smart.

📖 Definition

Multiple Intelligence (MI) Theory proposes that there are at least eight different kinds of intelligence, each representing a different way of processing information. Every individual has a unique combination of these intelligences.

The Eight Intelligences — Application in English Teaching

📚

Linguistic

Word smart — love of reading, writing, storytelling

ELT: Essay writing, storytelling, debates

🔢

Logical-Mathematical

Number smart — logical thinking, patterns

ELT: Sequencing paragraphs, grammar puzzles

🎵

Musical

Music smart — rhythm, melody, sound patterns

ELT: Songs, rhymes, poetry with music

🏃

Bodily-Kinesthetic

Body smart — physical movement, hands-on

ELT: Role-play, drama, action storytelling

🗺️

Spatial

Picture smart — images, diagrams, visual thinking

ELT: Mind maps, visual vocabulary, storyboards

🤝

Interpersonal

People smart — interaction, empathy, teamwork

ELT: Group discussions, peer teaching

🤔

Intrapersonal

Self smart — reflection, self-awareness

ELT: Journals, reflective writing, self-assessment

🌿

Naturalist

Nature smart — sensitivity to natural world

ELT: Nature essays, environmental debates

Significance of MI Theory for ELT

Every student learns differently — MI theory respects this diversity
Helps teachers design varied activities that suit different learners
Students who struggle with grammar (linguistic) may excel in role-play (kinesthetic)
Encourages teachers not to rely on only one method
Particularly useful in mixed-ability classrooms common in India

Unit II · Topic 7

Technology in ELT: ICT, CALL, MALL, and AI

ICT in Education

📖 ICT — Information and Communication Technology

ICT refers to the use of digital tools, computers, internet, and electronic media to support teaching and learning. In ELT, ICT includes projectors, smartboards, computers, videos, online resources, and educational software.

PowerPoint presentations make lessons visual and engaging
YouTube videos provide authentic listening material
Google Forms can be used for quick quizzes
Padlet and Jamboard enable collaborative writing activities

CALL — Computer Assisted Language Learning

📖 Definition

CALL refers to the use of computers and computer-based programs to teach and learn language. It includes educational software, online exercises, and interactive platforms designed specifically for language learning.

Types of CALL:

Behaviouristic CALL (1960s-70s): Drill-and-practice programs, grammar exercises
Communicative CALL (1980s): Word processors, language games, simulations
Integrative CALL (1990s–present): Internet-based learning, multimedia, interactive tools

🏫 Examples of CALL Tools

Duolingo: Gamified language learning app
Grammarly: Grammar checking and feedback tool
Quizlet: Digital flashcards for vocabulary
Google Classroom: Assignment and feedback platform
British Council LearnEnglish: Online exercises and audio

MALL — Mobile Assisted Language Learning

📖 Definition

MALL refers to language learning that uses mobile devices — smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices. It extends learning beyond the classroom and makes learning available anytime, anywhere.

Most college students in India have smartphones → MALL is very relevant
WhatsApp groups for vocabulary of the day, grammar quizzes
Podcasts for listening practice
Telegram channels for reading comprehension
YouTube shorts for short grammar lessons

🏫 MALL in Ahilyanagar Classrooms

A teacher can create a WhatsApp group and post: one new word daily with meaning and example, a short grammar video from YouTube, a weekly MCQ quiz using Google Forms. Students practice on their own phones at home. This is MALL in action.

AI Tools in ELT — Including ChatGPT

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has entered education rapidly. In ELT, AI tools can be used both by teachers and students.

ChatGPT and AI Chatbots:

Students can practice conversation with an AI chatbot
AI can give immediate feedback on writing
Teachers can use AI to generate exercises, quiz questions, and reading passages
AI can explain grammar rules in simple language
Students can ask AI to correct their essays or check their grammar

Other AI Tools for ELT:

Grammarly (AI-powered): Writing feedback and suggestions
Speechify / NaturalReader: Text-to-speech for pronunciation modeling
Diffit: Generates differentiated reading materials
Canva AI: Creates visual aids for classroom presentations

⚠️ Critical Perspective on AI in Education

While AI offers many benefits, there are concerns: over-dependence may reduce critical thinking; academic dishonesty (students submitting AI-generated essays); digital divide — not all students have reliable internet access. Teachers must use AI as a supplement, not a substitute for real learning.

Comparison: CALL vs MALL

Feature	CALL	MALL
Device	Desktop/Laptop computers	Smartphones/Tablets
Location	Computer lab, classroom	Anywhere — home, bus, anywhere
Flexibility	Limited to fixed locations	Highly flexible and portable
Access	Computer + Internet	Smartphone + Data
India Context	Common in urban colleges	More accessible in rural areas

Quick Revision — Unit II Key Terms

Approach
Theory/philosophy of teaching
Method
Systematic plan based on approach
Technique
Specific classroom activity
GTM
Grammar + Translation focus
Direct Method
No mother tongue; real objects
Structural Method
Graded patterns + drills
CLT
Communication as goal
Communicative Competence
Dell Hymes; real-world use
MI Theory
Gardner; 8 intelligences
CALL
Computer-based language learning
MALL
Mobile-based language learning
AI in ELT
ChatGPT, Grammarly, etc.

Expected University Questions — Unit II

Based on examination patterns for MA English ELLT Paper

Long Answer Questions

Describe the Grammar Translation Method. What are its advantages and limitations? How does CLT overcome its limitations?
Explain Communicative Language Teaching in detail. Discuss its principles, activities, and relevance to Indian classrooms.
Differentiate between Method, Approach, and Technique with suitable examples.
Discuss the role of technology (ICT/CALL/MALL) in modern English Language Teaching.
Explain Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences and its application in the ELT classroom.

Short Notes

The Direct Method
Structural Method and pattern drills
CALL vs MALL
AI tools in ELT (ChatGPT)
Communicative Competence (Dell Hymes)
Linguistic Intelligence in Gardner's MI Theory

Common Student Mistakes — Unit II

Mixing up "Approach" and "Method" — remember: approach is theory, method is plan
Saying "GTM develops communication skills" — GTM ignores speaking and listening completely
Confusing CALL and MALL — CALL = computers; MALL = mobile phones
Not writing a classroom example for each method — examiners expect examples
Listing all 8 MI intelligences without explaining their application in ELT
Forgetting that CLT developed from the work of Dell Hymes

Unit Three

Teaching Language Skills and Testing

Vocabulary · Pronunciation · Grammar Listening · Speaking · Reading · Writing Testing & Evaluation Formative & Summative

Unit III · Topic 1

Teaching Vocabulary

Why Vocabulary Teaching is Important

Vocabulary is the building block of language. Without words, there is no communication. David Wilkins famously said: "Without grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed."

📖 Definition

Vocabulary teaching is the process of helping learners acquire, understand, retain, and use new words in meaningful contexts. It includes teaching not just meaning, but also pronunciation, spelling, grammar behavior (noun/verb/adjective), and collocation (words that go together).

Types of Vocabulary

Active Vocabulary: Words students can use in speech and writing
Passive Vocabulary: Words students recognize when they see/hear them but may not use
High-Frequency Words: Common words used in everyday language (e.g., the, have, go)
Academic Vocabulary: Words used in academic texts (e.g., analyze, evaluate, significant)

Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary

Contextual Clues: Students guess meaning from the surrounding text
Realia: Real objects brought to class (show a mango to teach "mango")
Pictures and Visuals: Images, flashcards, diagrams
Word Maps / Mind Maps: Connecting a word to synonyms, antonyms, and examples
Semantic Fields: Grouping related words (fruits, vegetables, transport)
Word Formation: Teaching prefixes, suffixes, and roots
Vocabulary Notebooks: Students maintain their own word journals
Word Games: Crosswords, word searches, Scrabble, Pictionary
Digital Flashcards: Using apps like Quizlet for spaced repetition

🏫 Indian Classroom Example

Teaching the word "benevolent" → Teacher writes the word on the board → Shows picture of Mother Teresa helping the poor → Gives a sentence: "The benevolent king gave food to the poor." → Students write their own sentence → Student pairs discuss a "benevolent person" they know. Multiple exposures = better retention.

Principles of Effective Vocabulary Teaching

Teach words in context, not in isolation
Multiple encounters with a word help retention (repetition in different contexts)
Teach both form (spelling/pronunciation) and meaning
Active use of new words through speaking and writing tasks
Teach collocations — words that go together ("make a decision", not "do a decision")

Unit III · Topic 2

Teaching Pronunciation

Importance of Pronunciation

Pronunciation affects how clearly and confidently a student communicates. Poor pronunciation can cause misunderstanding even when grammar and vocabulary are correct. Example: "desert" vs "dessert" — a single vowel change changes the meaning entirely.

📖 Definition

Pronunciation teaching helps learners produce correct sounds, stress, rhythm, and intonation in the target language. The goal is intelligibility — being understood — rather than a perfect native-like accent.

Key Aspects of Pronunciation

Phonemes: Individual sounds (/p/, /b/, /ʃ/ for "sh")
Word Stress: Which syllable gets emphasis (RE-cord vs re-CORD)
Sentence Stress: Which words in a sentence are stressed
Intonation: Rising and falling tone patterns (questions vs statements)
Connected Speech: How words link together in natural speech

Techniques for Teaching Pronunciation

Minimal Pairs: Contrasting similar sounds (ship/sheep, bit/beat)
Listen and Repeat: Audio or teacher model + student repetition
Phoneme Charts: IPA chart displayed in class for reference
Tongue Twisters: Fun practice for difficult sounds
Audio/Video Modeling: Authentic recordings of native and non-native speakers
Shadowing: Students listen to a recording and repeat simultaneously
Reading Aloud: Controlled practice of connected speech

🏫 Common Problems for Marathi/Hindi Students

Difficulty with /v/ vs /w/ (vine vs wine)
Adding vowel sounds before consonant clusters ("sschool" instead of "school")
Word stress errors ("DEvelop" instead of "deVELop")
Not distinguishing /æ/ (cat) from /ɑː/ (cart)

Unit III · Topic 3

Teaching Grammar

What is Grammar Teaching?

📖 Definition

Grammar teaching is the process of helping learners understand and use the rules of language structure — tenses, articles, prepositions, sentence patterns — accurately in communication.

Deductive vs Inductive Grammar Teaching

Feature	Deductive (Rule-first)	Inductive (Examples-first)
Sequence	Rule → Examples → Practice	Examples → Discover Rule → Practice
Teacher Role	Explains rule directly	Provides examples, guides discovery
Student Role	Listens and applies	Analyzes and discovers
Suits	Complex rules, beginners	Pattern-based rules, advanced learners
Example	Teacher: "Past tense = V+ed" then gives examples	Teacher: Shows 10 past tense sentences; students find the rule

PPP Model for Grammar Teaching

The PPP Model (Presentation → Practice → Production) is a popular framework:

Presentation: Teacher introduces the grammar point with context (a short text or picture)
Practice: Students do controlled exercises (fill in blanks, sentence transformation)
Production: Students use the grammar point freely in speaking or writing tasks

🏫 Example: Teaching Present Perfect

Presentation: "I have visited Mumbai three times." — context: talking about life experience
Practice: Fill in blanks: "She _____ (see) that film twice."
Production: "Tell your partner about three things you have done in your life."

Unit III · Topic 4

Teaching the Four Language Skills

Overview

Language has four core skills divided into receptive (input) and productive (output) skills:

Receptive Skills: Listening and Reading (we receive language)
Productive Skills: Speaking and Writing (we produce language)

1. Teaching Listening

Why Listening is Important

Listening is the most used language skill in daily life. We spend about 40-50% of communication time listening. Yet it is the most neglected skill in traditional Indian classrooms.

Types of Listening:

Intensive Listening: Close, detailed listening for specific information
Extensive Listening: Relaxed listening for general meaning (e.g., listening to radio)
Interactive Listening: Listening while also participating (conversation, discussion)

Stages of a Listening Lesson:

Pre-Listening: Activate background knowledge; discuss topic; preview questions
While-Listening: Listen for gist; listen for specific details; take notes
Post-Listening: Discussion; summary; follow-up task

🏫 Classroom Activities

Listen to an audio news report → answer True/False questions → discuss the main issue in pairs. Or: Watch a short YouTube clip without subtitles → reconstruct the main points from memory.

2. Teaching Speaking

Why Speaking is Important

Speaking is the most visible skill — it is how people judge our English proficiency. Yet many Indian students who have studied English for 10+ years cannot speak fluently due to lack of practice opportunities and fear of mistakes.

Types of Speaking Activities:

Controlled Practice: Dialogue practice, repetition drills
Guided Practice: Role-play with prompts, structured debates
Free Practice: Open discussion, presentations, impromptu speaking

Classroom Activities:

Role-plays: Doctor-patient, interview scenarios
Just a Minute (JAM): Speak on a topic for one minute
Group Discussions on current topics
Storytelling from pictures
Debates: "Social media is harmful to students" — for/against

3. Teaching Reading

Why Reading is Important

Reading builds vocabulary, improves grammar, and develops critical thinking. It is a key academic skill for university students.

Types of Reading:

Skimming: Reading quickly to get the general idea ("What is this text about?")
Scanning: Reading to find specific information quickly (a name, date, or number)
Intensive Reading: Careful, detailed reading for full understanding
Extensive Reading: Reading large amounts for pleasure and fluency development

Stages of a Reading Lesson:

Pre-Reading: Preview the text, predict content, activate schema
While-Reading: Read for gist, read for detail, vocabulary in context
Post-Reading: Discussion, summary, response task, creative follow-up

4. Teaching Writing

Why Writing is Important

Writing develops logical thinking, helps organize ideas, and is essential for academic success. It is a productive skill requiring practice and feedback.

Types of Writing:

Controlled Writing: Sentence completion, gap-fill, guided paragraph writing
Guided Writing: Writing with prompts, outlines, or model texts
Free Writing: Essays, stories, articles, reports — independent composition

Process Approach to Writing:

Prewriting: Brainstorming, mind-mapping, outlining
Drafting: Writing the first version
Revising: Improving content, structure, and clarity
Editing: Correcting grammar, spelling, and punctuation
Publishing: Sharing the final product

🏫 Writing Activity

Task: "Write a letter to your college principal requesting permission for a study tour." → Students brainstorm → Draft → Peer review → Revise → Final submission. This process approach develops real writing competence.

Unit III · Topic 5

Testing and Evaluation in ELT

Testing vs Evaluation — The Key Difference

Feature	Testing	Evaluation
Definition	A formal instrument to measure language ability	Broad judgment about teaching and learning
Scope	Narrow — measures specific skills at a point in time	Wide — includes tests, observations, portfolios, feedback
Purpose	Measure performance; assign grades	Improve teaching and learning
Form	Exam paper, quiz, oral test	Observation, feedback, portfolio, self-assessment
Result	Score / Grade	Judgment about quality / progress

Simply put: All tests are part of evaluation, but not all evaluation involves tests.

Formative vs Summative Assessment

📖 Formative Assessment

Assessment during the learning process. It provides ongoing feedback to help students improve. It is assessment FOR learning. Examples: weekly quizzes, class discussions, homework review, peer feedback, progress tests.

📖 Summative Assessment

Assessment at the end of a learning period. It measures what students have achieved. It is assessment OF learning. Examples: semester exams, final exams, end-of-unit tests, standardized tests.

Feature	Formative	Summative
Timing	During learning	End of learning period
Purpose	Improve learning	Measure achievement
Feedback	Frequent and immediate	Final grade/result
Stakes	Low — no major grade impact	High — determines final grade
Indian Example	Class test, viva, assignment	Semester final exam, board exam

Types of Tests in ELT

Placement Test: Given before a course begins to place students in the right level
Diagnostic Test: Identifies specific learning difficulties/needs at the start
Achievement Test: Measures what students have learned in a specific course
Proficiency Test: Measures general level of language ability (e.g., IELTS, TOEFL)
Progress Test: Measures improvement over time during a course

Qualities of a Good Test (VPREP)

A good language test must have these five qualities:

Validity: The test measures what it claims to measure. A grammar test must test grammar — not general knowledge. "Does it test what it should test?"
Reliability: The test gives consistent results. If tested twice in similar conditions, a student should get similar scores. "Can we trust the results?"
Practicality: The test is feasible — easy to administer, score, and analyze with available resources and time. "Is it manageable?"
Authenticity: Test tasks are similar to real-life language use. "Does it reflect real communication?"
Washback (Backwash): The test has a positive effect on teaching and learning. Good tests motivate students to learn the right things. "Does the test encourage good learning?"

Types of Test Questions

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ): One correct option from four. Objective, easy to mark. Tests knowledge and comprehension.
True/False Questions: Student judges a statement as correct or incorrect.
Fill in the Blanks: Tests specific grammar or vocabulary knowledge.
Matching Questions: Match terms with definitions or sentences with completions.
Short Answer Questions: 2–3 sentence responses testing understanding.
Essay Questions: Extended writing testing organization, argument, and language use.
Cloze Test: A passage with regular words removed — students fill in the missing words.
Oral/Viva Test: Spoken assessment of speaking and language ability.
Portfolio Assessment: Collection of student work over time — shows progress.

🏫 Indian University Context

In Maharashtra universities, the typical exam pattern for MA English includes:
Internal Assessment: Assignments, presentations, class tests (formative + summative)
Semester Exam: Long answer questions (15–20 marks), short notes (5–7 marks), MCQs
A good university paper maintains balance — not just testing memory (lower Bloom's) but also understanding and analysis (higher Bloom's).

Quick Revision — Unit III Key Terms

Active Vocabulary
Words students can use
Passive Vocabulary
Words students recognize
PPP Model
Present → Practice → Produce
Minimal Pairs
Pronunciation contrast (ship/sheep)
Skimming
Quick reading for gist
Scanning
Quick search for specific info
Formative
Assessment during learning
Summative
Assessment at end
Validity
Tests what it should
Reliability
Consistent results
Washback
Test's effect on learning
Cloze Test
Gap-fill passage test

Expected University Questions — Unit III

Based on examination patterns for MA English ELLT Paper

Long Answer Questions

Discuss various techniques for teaching vocabulary in the English language classroom. Give suitable Indian classroom examples.
Explain the four language skills (LSRW). Discuss methods and activities for developing each skill in an Indian college classroom.
What is the difference between testing and evaluation? Explain formative and summative assessment with examples.
Discuss the qualities of a good language test. Illustrate with reference to university examination practices.
Explain the teaching of pronunciation with reference to common challenges faced by Marathi/Hindi medium students.
Compare and contrast deductive and inductive approaches to grammar teaching.

Short Notes

The Cloze Test
Washback effect in language testing
The Process Approach to writing
Types of reading (Skimming and Scanning)
Proficiency test vs Achievement test
Role of vocabulary in ELT (Wilkins' famous quote)
MALL in teaching speaking and listening

Model Answer Points — Qualities of a Good Test

5 qualities: Validity, Reliability, Practicality, Authenticity, Washback
Validity = tests what it claims to test
Reliability = consistent scores under similar conditions
Practicality = feasible to administer and score
Authenticity = real-life language tasks
Washback = positive influence on teaching and learning
Mention that no test is perfect — there are always trade-offs

Common Student Mistakes — Unit III

Writing "Listening and Reading are productive skills" — they are RECEPTIVE skills
Confusing "Summative" with "continuous" — summative is the final exam; continuous = formative
Forgetting to explain all five qualities of a good test — if the question says "discuss qualities", all five must be covered
Writing only "MCQ" as a type of test — examiners want at least 5–6 types with brief explanations
Not distinguishing Placement Test from Diagnostic Test — placement assigns levels; diagnostic identifies problems
Ignoring "Washback" — it is the most important and most often asked quality

Comprehensive Exam Revision

Key thinkers, terms, and connections across all three units

Key Thinkers

B.F. Skinner — Behaviorism, Operant Conditioning
Noam Chomsky — LAD, Universal Grammar
Jean Piaget — Cognitive development stages
Benjamin Bloom — Taxonomy of Learning
Stephen Krashen — 5 Hypotheses of SLA
Howard Gardner — Multiple Intelligences
Dell Hymes — Communicative Competence
David Wilkins — Vocabulary importance

Most Important Definitions

CLT: Communication-centered teaching method
Bloom's Taxonomy: Hierarchy of cognitive skills
Krashen's i+1: Comprehensible input slightly above current level
CALL: Computer-assisted language learning
MALL: Mobile-assisted language learning
Washback: Test's effect on teaching/learning
Validity: Test measures what it should

Conceptual Connections

Behaviorism → GTM and Structural Method
Cognitivism → CLT and Communicative Approach
Bloom's Taxonomy → Better test question design
Krashen's Affective Filter → Importance of safe classroom
MI Theory → Need for varied teaching activities
CALL/MALL → Technology-enhanced CLT
Formative Assessment → Washback in action

References

Select Bibliography

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching (4th ed.). Pearson Longman.
Richards, J.C. & Rodgers, T.S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S.D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press.
Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. Longman.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Basic Books.
Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology. Prentice Hall.

English Language& Literature Teaching

Table of Contents

Theories of Language Learning

Behaviorism and Language Learning

What is Behaviorism?

Key Thinker: B.F. Skinner

The Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement Model

Key Features of Behaviorism

Role of Behaviorism in the Classroom

Advantages of Behaviorism

Limitations of Behaviorism

Cognitivism and Language Learning

What is Cognitivism?

Key Ideas in Cognitivism

Cognitivism vs Behaviorism — Key Differences

Role of Memory in Language Learning

Application in the ELT Classroom

Chomsky's Contribution (Innatism — related to Cognitivism)

Bloom's Taxonomy

What is Bloom's Taxonomy?

The Six Levels — Revised Bloom's Taxonomy

Why Bloom's Taxonomy Matters for English Teaching

Classroom Application in ELT

Bloom's and Question Formation

Language Acquisition vs Language Learning & Krashen's Hypotheses

The Core Difference

Key Differences

Stephen Krashen's Five Hypotheses

Practical Implications for the ELT Classroom

Quick Revision — Unit I Key Terms

Expected University Questions — Unit I

Common Student Mistakes — Unit I

Teaching Methods in English Language Teaching

Method, Approach, and Technique

Understanding the Three Terms

Comparison Table

Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

What is the Grammar Translation Method?

Key Features

Advantages

Limitations

The Direct Method

Background and Definition

Key Features

Advantages and Limitations

The Structural Method

Background and Definition

Key Features

Types of Drills Used

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

What is CLT?

Communicative Competence (Dell Hymes)

Key Principles of CLT

CLT Classroom Activities

Comparison: GTM vs CLT

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

What are Multiple Intelligences?

The Eight Intelligences — Application in English Teaching

Significance of MI Theory for ELT

Technology in ELT: ICT, CALL, MALL, and AI

ICT in Education

CALL — Computer Assisted Language Learning

MALL — Mobile Assisted Language Learning

AI Tools in ELT — Including ChatGPT

Comparison: CALL vs MALL

Quick Revision — Unit II Key Terms

Expected University Questions — Unit II

Common Student Mistakes — Unit II

Teaching Language Skills and Testing

Teaching Vocabulary

Why Vocabulary Teaching is Important

Types of Vocabulary

Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary

Principles of Effective Vocabulary Teaching

Teaching Pronunciation

Importance of Pronunciation

Key Aspects of Pronunciation

Techniques for Teaching Pronunciation

Teaching Grammar

What is Grammar Teaching?

English Language
& Literature Teaching