Ahmednagar College, Ahilyanagar
English Language
& Literature Teaching
Comprehensive Study Notes · MA Part II · Semester III
Unit I · Language Learning Theories
Unit II · Teaching Methods
Unit III · Skills & Testing
Unit I · Topic 1
Behaviorism and Language Learning
What is Behaviorism?
Behaviorism is a theory that says all learning — including language learning — happens through behavior, not through thinking or the mind. Behaviorists believe that we cannot study the mind directly, but we can study behavior because we can see and measure it.
📖 Definition
Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on
observable behavior. It says that learning happens when a
stimulus (input) produces a
response (output), and this response is
reinforced (rewarded or punished) to shape future behavior.
Key Thinker: B.F. Skinner
The most famous behaviorist in education is B.F. Skinner. He developed the idea of Operant Conditioning. He believed:
- Language is a type of verbal behavior
- Children learn language by imitating adults
- Correct responses are reinforced (praised/rewarded)
- Wrong responses are ignored or corrected
- Through repetition, correct habits are formed
The Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement Model
This is the heart of Behaviorism in language learning. It works like this:
🏫 Indian Classroom Example
Stimulus: Teacher says – "What is this?" (pointing to a pencil)
Response: Student says – "This is a pencil."
Reinforcement: Teacher says – "Very good! Excellent!"
→ The student repeats this behavior in future because it was rewarded.
Key Features of Behaviorism
- Learning = Habit Formation: Language is learned by forming correct habits through repetition
- Imitation is key: Children copy what they hear around them
- Error correction: Mistakes must be corrected immediately to avoid wrong habits
- Drill and Practice: Repeated exercises help fix language patterns in the mind
- Positive Reinforcement: Praise, rewards, and encouragement increase correct behavior
- Negative Reinforcement/Punishment: Reduces wrong behavior
Role of Behaviorism in the Classroom
- Teachers use drills and repetition exercises
- Language labs with listen-and-repeat activities
- Grammar exercises with immediate feedback
- Flash cards, pattern practice
- Teachers reward correct answers verbally ("Good!", "Perfect!")
- Immediate correction of pronunciation and grammar errors
Advantages of Behaviorism
- Simple and easy to apply in class
- Useful for building basic vocabulary and grammar habits
- Good for young learners who need structured practice
- Drills help students remember patterns automatically
- Works well for pronunciation training
Limitations of Behaviorism
- Ignores the role of the mind and thinking in language learning
- Drills are boring and mechanical — no creativity
- Students may memorize without understanding meaning
- Does not explain how children create new sentences they have never heard before
- Over-correction can make students afraid of speaking
💡 Conclusion
Behaviorism gave the world important tools like
drills, practice exercises, and reinforcement. But it is not enough on its own because language is not just behavior — it involves complex thinking and meaning-making. That is why Cognitivism emerged as an alternative.
Unit I · Topic 2
Cognitivism and Language Learning
What is Cognitivism?
Cognitivism is a learning theory that says learning is a mental process. It focuses on what happens inside the mind — how we receive, store, process, and use information. Unlike Behaviorism, Cognitivism accepts that the mind matters.
📖 Definition
Cognitivism is a learning theory that sees the learner as an
active thinker, not just a passive receiver. Learning is the process of
acquiring, organizing, and storing knowledge in the mind through thinking, understanding, and problem-solving.
Key Ideas in Cognitivism
- Mental Processes: Learning involves attention, memory, thinking, and understanding
- Prior Knowledge: New information connects with what we already know (called "schema")
- Active Learner: The student is not passive — they actively make sense of new information
- Problem Solving: Learning happens when students face challenges and work through them
- Memory: Short-term memory and long-term memory play key roles in language learning
Cognitivism vs Behaviorism — Key Differences
| Point | Behaviorism | Cognitivism |
|---|
| Focus | Observable behavior | Mental processes / thinking |
| Learner Role | Passive receiver | Active thinker |
| Learning Method | Drill, repetition, imitation | Understanding, problem-solving |
| Error | Always correct immediately | Errors show learning is in progress |
| Key Concept | Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement | Schema, memory, comprehension |
| Famous Thinker | B.F. Skinner | Piaget, Chomsky, Ausubel |
Role of Memory in Language Learning
- Working Memory (Short-term): We hold new words/phrases in our mind briefly while processing them
- Long-term Memory: Information that is understood and practiced moves to long-term memory
- Retrieval: We recall language from memory when we need to speak or write
- Meaningful Learning: Ausubel said we learn better when new knowledge connects to existing knowledge
Application in the ELT Classroom
🏫 Classroom Examples
- Teacher asks students to predict meaning of new words from context before giving definitions
- Use of concept maps and mind maps to organize vocabulary
- Discussion activities that require students to think and form opinions
- Reading comprehension with inference questions
- Grammar taught through discovery learning — students find the rule themselves
Chomsky's Contribution (Innatism — related to Cognitivism)
Noam Chomsky challenged Behaviorism. He said children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) — a natural ability to learn language. This explains why children learn complex grammar naturally without formal teaching. This view is cognitive because it focuses on the mind's innate ability.
💡 Conclusion
Cognitivism shifted the focus from
behavior to the mind. It helped teachers understand that students need to
understand, not just memorize. Modern ELT uses many cognitive strategies — prediction, inference, discussion, and discovery learning — all because of Cognitivism.
Unit I · Topic 3
Bloom's Taxonomy
What is Bloom's Taxonomy?
Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of thinking skills from simple to complex. It was created by Benjamin Bloom in 1956 and revised by Anderson and Krathwohl in 2001.
📖 Definition
Bloom's Taxonomy is a
framework of educational objectives that arranges cognitive skills from the lowest level (Remembering) to the highest level (Creating). It helps teachers design
learning goals, activities, and assessments that develop different levels of thinking.
The Six Levels — Revised Bloom's Taxonomy
Level
What the Learner Does
ELT Example Activity
1. Remember
Recall facts, definitions, basic information
Define "metaphor"; recall vocabulary list
2. Understand
Explain ideas in own words
Summarize a passage; paraphrase a poem
3. Apply
Use knowledge in a new situation
Use new vocabulary in sentences; apply grammar rule
4. Analyze
Break down content, find patterns
Identify figures of speech in a poem; compare characters
5. Evaluate
Justify a decision; assess quality
Critique an argument; judge which essay is better written
6. Create
Design, produce, compose something new
Write an original story; compose a poem; design a speech
Why Bloom's Taxonomy Matters for English Teaching
- It helps teachers ask questions at different levels of difficulty
- Low-level questions test memory; high-level questions test thinking
- It ensures teaching goes beyond rote learning
- It helps design better exam questions
- It guides teachers to develop all cognitive abilities of students
Classroom Application in ELT
🏫 Example: Teaching a Short Story
- Remember: "Who are the main characters in the story?"
- Understand: "What is the main theme of the story?"
- Apply: "Write a new ending for the story."
- Analyze: "How does the author use dialogue to reveal character?"
- Evaluate: "Is the protagonist's decision justified? Why?"
- Create: "Write a similar story set in your own village/town."
Bloom's and Question Formation
In university exams, question papers often test different Bloom's levels. Students should identify the level being asked:
- "Define / State / List" → Remember level
- "Explain / Describe / Summarize" → Understand level
- "Illustrate / Use / Demonstrate" → Apply level
- "Compare / Examine / Distinguish" → Analyze level
- "Assess / Justify / Critique" → Evaluate level
- "Design / Compose / Create" → Create level
💡 Conclusion
Bloom's Taxonomy is a
practical tool for teachers. It helps design activities and questions that move students from
simple memorization to deep thinking and creativity. Every English teacher should use it to ensure their teaching develops all levels of cognition.
Unit I · Topic 4
Language Acquisition vs Language Learning & Krashen's Hypotheses
The Core Difference
📖 Language Acquisition
Language Acquisition is the
natural, unconscious process by which a child picks up their first language (mother tongue). It happens automatically through exposure and interaction — without any formal teaching.
📖 Language Learning
Language Learning is the
conscious, formal process of studying a language — usually in a classroom setting. It involves learning grammar rules, vocabulary, and practicing skills deliberately.
Key Differences
| Point | Language Acquisition | Language Learning |
|---|
| Process | Unconscious, natural | Conscious, deliberate |
| Setting | Home, community, natural environment | Classroom, formal instruction |
| Age | Mainly childhood (0–12 years) | Any age, usually school age |
| Grammar | Internalized naturally | Explicitly taught and studied |
| Result | Fluency and natural use | Accuracy but may lack fluency |
| Example | Child learning Marathi at home | Student learning English in college |
Stephen Krashen's Five Hypotheses
Stephen Krashen is one of the most important scholars in language education. He proposed five hypotheses about how people learn second languages:
1. THE ACQUISITION–LEARNING HYPOTHESIS
There are two separate systems:
acquisition (subconscious) and
learning (conscious). Only acquisition leads to fluency. Learning helps monitor correctness but does not produce natural language.
2. THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS
The consciously
learned language acts as a
Monitor — it checks and corrects our speech/writing before we produce it. But over-monitoring makes speakers hesitant and slow.
3. THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS
Language structures are acquired in a
predictable, natural order — regardless of which language is taught first in class. Teachers cannot change this order.
4. THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS (i + 1)
Language is acquired when learners receive
comprehensible input that is
slightly above their current level. If the current level is "i", the input should be "i + 1" — a little challenging but understandable.
Example: A student can understand simple sentences (i). The teacher uses slightly complex sentences with visual support (i+1).
5. THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS
Emotional factors like
anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence affect language learning. A high affective filter (high anxiety, low confidence)
blocks language acquisition. Teachers must create a
safe, low-anxiety classroom environment.
Practical Implications for the ELT Classroom
- Create a friendly, supportive class atmosphere to lower the affective filter
- Provide comprehensible input — use visuals, simple language with support
- Encourage reading and listening for natural language exposure
- Do not force students to speak before they are ready (Silent Period)
- Grammar correction should be gentle and not anxiety-inducing
💡 Conclusion
Krashen's hypotheses remain highly influential in ELT. They remind teachers that
natural exposure, emotional safety, and meaningful input are more important than mechanical drilling. The goal is to make the classroom feel like a
natural environment for language use.
Quick Revision — Unit I Key Terms
- Behaviorism
Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement
- Operant Conditioning
Skinner's learning model
- Cognitivism
Learning as mental process
- Schema
Prior knowledge structure
- LAD
Language Acquisition Device (Chomsky)
- Bloom's Taxonomy
6 cognitive levels
- i + 1
Comprehensible input (Krashen)
- Affective Filter
Emotional barrier to learning
- Acquisition
Natural, unconscious
- Learning
Formal, conscious
- Monitor Hypothesis
Conscious learning checks output
- Natural Order
Fixed sequence of acquisition
Expected University Questions — Unit I
Based on examination patterns for MA English ELLT Paper
Long Answer Questions (15–20 Marks)
- Explain Behaviorism as a theory of language learning. Discuss its application in the English language classroom with suitable examples.
- Compare and contrast Behaviorism and Cognitivism as theories of language learning. Which is more useful in the modern ELT classroom?
- Discuss Bloom's Taxonomy in detail. How can it be applied in English Language Teaching at the undergraduate level?
- Explain Krashen's five hypotheses of second language acquisition. Discuss their implications for the ELT classroom.
- Distinguish between Language Acquisition and Language Learning with suitable examples. Refer to Krashen's views.
Short Notes (5–7 Marks)
- Stimulus–Response–Reinforcement Model
- Skinner's contribution to language teaching
- The role of memory in language learning
- Bloom's revised taxonomy and classroom questions
- Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis
- The Input Hypothesis (i + 1)
- Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Model Answer Points — Krashen's Hypotheses
- Five hypotheses: Acquisition-Learning, Monitor, Natural Order, Input, Affective Filter
- Acquisition = unconscious; Learning = conscious
- Monitor = internal editor using learned knowledge
- Input must be comprehensible (i + 1)
- Anxiety/low confidence = high affective filter = blocks acquisition
- Classroom implication: safe environment + meaningful input + reading
Common Student Mistakes — Unit I
- Confusing Acquisition (natural) with Learning (formal) — they are opposites
- Writing "Bloom's Taxonomy has 7 levels" — it has 6 levels
- Saying "Krashen developed Behaviorism" — Skinner developed Behaviorism; Krashen is related to Cognitivism
- Forgetting to give classroom examples — always add examples for full marks
- Writing Bloom's levels in wrong order — start from Remembering (lowest) to Creating (highest)
- Ignoring the Affective Filter — this is often asked as a short note
Unit II · Topic 1
Method, Approach, and Technique
Understanding the Three Terms
These three terms are often confused. Anthony (1963) first explained the relationship between them clearly. Think of them as a hierarchy from theory to practice:
📖 Approach
An approach is a set of
theoretical beliefs about the nature of language and how it is learned. It is the
philosophy or perspective behind language teaching.
Example: "Language is best learned through real communication" → This is the Communicative Approach.
📖 Method
A method is a
systematic plan or procedure for teaching a language, based on a particular approach. It specifies
what to teach and
how to teach.
Example: Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a method based on the communicative approach.
📖 Technique
A technique is a
specific classroom activity or exercise used to implement a method. It is the actual
what happens in the classroom.
Example: Role-play is a technique used in CLT.
Comparison Table
| Feature | Approach | Method | Technique |
|---|
| Level | Theory / Philosophy | Plan / System | Classroom Activity |
| Abstract? | Most abstract | Semi-abstract | Concrete and practical |
| Example | Communicative approach | CLT method | Role-play activity |
| Designed by | Linguists/Theorists | Curriculum designers | Teachers in class |
🏫 Simple Analogy for Students
Think of building a house:
Approach = The architect's belief ("Homes should be eco-friendly")
Method = The building plan/blueprint
Technique = The specific tools and steps used (laying bricks, painting walls)
Unit II · Topic 2
Grammar Translation Method (GTM)
What is the Grammar Translation Method?
The Grammar Translation Method (GTM) is one of the oldest methods of language teaching. It was originally used to teach Latin and Greek in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. It later spread to modern language teaching.
📖 Definition
GTM is a method that teaches language
through the study of grammar rules and translation between the target language and the learner's mother tongue. The focus is on reading and writing, not speaking or listening.
Key Features
- The mother tongue is used extensively in the classroom
- Grammar is taught explicitly and deductively (rules first, then examples)
- Students read literary texts in the target language and translate them
- Vocabulary is taught in isolated word lists with mother-tongue translations
- Writing and reading are given priority; speaking and listening are neglected
- Student errors are corrected immediately and thoroughly
- The teacher is the authority; student participation is limited
Advantages
- Helps students understand complex grammar rules clearly
- Good for reading literary texts and understanding them deeply
- Easy to implement — requires no special equipment
- Useful in large classrooms
- Good for exam preparation where grammar is tested
Limitations
- Ignores speaking and listening skills completely
- Students cannot communicate in real life despite years of study
- Boring and mechanical — reduces student interest
- Translation can create wrong habits (thinking in mother tongue, then translating)
- Does not develop communicative competence
🏫 Indian Classroom Example
Teacher writes:
"The cat sat on the mat."
Student translates it into Marathi and identifies the subject, verb, and object.
Teacher gives grammar rule: "A sentence needs a subject and a verb."
→ This is a typical GTM lesson. Still widely used in many rural Maharashtra schools.
Unit II · Topic 3
The Direct Method
Background and Definition
The Direct Method emerged in the late 19th century as a reaction against GTM. It was championed by Charles Berlitz. The main idea is simple: teach English in English.
📖 Definition
The Direct Method teaches language
directly in the target language, without using the mother tongue. New vocabulary is taught through
objects, actions, pictures, and demonstrations, not through translation.
Key Features
- No mother tongue is used in the classroom
- Meaning is conveyed through real objects (realia), pictures, gestures, and actions
- Grammar is taught inductively — from examples to rules
- Speaking and listening are emphasized
- Oral communication and everyday vocabulary are the focus
- Only correct forms are produced and accepted (errors are not discussed)
Advantages and Limitations
| Advantages | Limitations |
|---|
| Develops oral fluency | Difficult to explain abstract concepts without L1 |
| Creates English-thinking habit | Requires highly proficient teacher |
| More natural, engaging lessons | Hard to implement in large classes |
| Avoids translation dependency | Not ideal for beginners with no English background |
🏫 Classroom Example
Teacher holds a book and says "This is a book." Then holds a pen: "This is a pen." Shows action: "I am writing." Students imitate. No Marathi is used at all. New words are demonstrated, not translated.
Unit II · Topic 4
The Structural Method
Background and Definition
The Structural Method is based on structural linguistics and the Behaviorist theory of learning. It was popular in the 1950s–70s. It focuses on teaching language as a system of structures (grammar patterns).
📖 Definition
The Structural Method teaches language by presenting and practicing
grammatical structures in a graded, sequential order — from simple to complex. Mastery of each structure is achieved through repetitive practice (drills).
Key Features
- Language is taught as a set of structures (patterns)
- Structures are arranged in order of difficulty — graded syllabus
- Heavy use of drills and pattern practice
- Spoken language is given priority over written
- New structures are introduced one at a time
- Based on Behaviorist habit formation
Types of Drills Used
- Repetition Drill: "Repeat after me: I go to school."
- Substitution Drill: "I go to school / market / hospital"
- Transformation Drill: Change positive to negative: "I go → I don't go"
- Question-Answer Drill: "Do you eat rice? — Yes, I eat rice."
🏫 Indian Classroom Context
This method was used extensively in India in the 1960s–80s, especially in government schools. Many older textbooks in Maharashtra are based on structural syllabi — moving from simple sentences to complex ones gradually.
Unit II · Topic 5
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
What is CLT?
CLT is the most widely used method in modern ELT. It emerged in the 1970s in Britain as a reaction to GTM and Structural approaches. The goal of CLT is communicative competence — the ability to use language effectively in real situations.
📖 Definition
CLT is a teaching approach that emphasizes
communication as the primary goal of language learning. It focuses on meaning, real-life language use, interaction between learners, and developing the ability to communicate appropriately in different situations.
Communicative Competence (Dell Hymes)
Dell Hymes coined the term "communicative competence." He said language competence is not just knowing grammar (linguistic competence) — it also includes:
- Grammatical Competence: Correct use of language rules
- Sociolinguistic Competence: Using language appropriately in social contexts
- Discourse Competence: Connecting sentences logically
- Strategic Competence: Using communication strategies when stuck
Key Principles of CLT
- Focus on meaning, not just form
- Use of real-life tasks and authentic materials
- Learner-centered approach — students are active participants
- Pair work and group work are encouraged
- Fluency is prioritized over perfect accuracy
- Errors are tolerated if communication is successful
- Language is used for a purpose — to achieve communicative goals
CLT Classroom Activities
- Role-Play: Students act as doctor-patient, shopkeeper-customer, etc.
- Information Gap: Student A has info Student B needs — they must communicate to complete the task
- Simulation: Recreate real-life situations (booking a ticket, job interview)
- Debates and Discussions: Students express and defend opinions
- Problem-Solving Tasks: Groups solve a real or hypothetical problem
Comparison: GTM vs CLT
| Feature | GTM | CLT |
|---|
| Goal | Read and translate literary texts | Communicate effectively in real life |
| Focus | Grammar and vocabulary (form) | Meaning and communication |
| Language Use | Mother tongue used freely | Target language used throughout |
| Activities | Translation, grammar exercises | Role-play, discussion, tasks |
| Errors | Immediately corrected | Tolerated if meaning is clear |
| Teacher Role | Authority / Knowledge giver | Facilitator / Organizer |
| Student Role | Passive receiver | Active communicator |
💡 Conclusion
CLT is the most relevant method for today's English teaching because the
goal of language is communication. However, in rural Maharashtra classrooms with large class sizes and limited resources, CLT needs to be
adapted carefully. Many teachers use a
mixed approach — some structural practice + CLT activities.
Unit II · Topic 6
Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
What are Multiple Intelligences?
In 1983, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single ability measured by IQ. Instead, he said humans have multiple types of intelligences — different ways of being smart.
📖 Definition
Multiple Intelligence (MI) Theory proposes that there are
at least eight different kinds of intelligence, each representing a different way of processing information. Every individual has a unique combination of these intelligences.
The Eight Intelligences — Application in English Teaching
📚
Linguistic
Word smart — love of reading, writing, storytelling
ELT: Essay writing, storytelling, debates
🔢
Logical-Mathematical
Number smart — logical thinking, patterns
ELT: Sequencing paragraphs, grammar puzzles
🎵
Musical
Music smart — rhythm, melody, sound patterns
ELT: Songs, rhymes, poetry with music
🏃
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Body smart — physical movement, hands-on
ELT: Role-play, drama, action storytelling
🗺️
Spatial
Picture smart — images, diagrams, visual thinking
ELT: Mind maps, visual vocabulary, storyboards
🤝
Interpersonal
People smart — interaction, empathy, teamwork
ELT: Group discussions, peer teaching
🤔
Intrapersonal
Self smart — reflection, self-awareness
ELT: Journals, reflective writing, self-assessment
🌿
Naturalist
Nature smart — sensitivity to natural world
ELT: Nature essays, environmental debates
Significance of MI Theory for ELT
- Every student learns differently — MI theory respects this diversity
- Helps teachers design varied activities that suit different learners
- Students who struggle with grammar (linguistic) may excel in role-play (kinesthetic)
- Encourages teachers not to rely on only one method
- Particularly useful in mixed-ability classrooms common in India
Unit II · Topic 7
Technology in ELT: ICT, CALL, MALL, and AI
ICT in Education
📖 ICT — Information and Communication Technology
ICT refers to the use of
digital tools, computers, internet, and electronic media to support teaching and learning. In ELT, ICT includes projectors, smartboards, computers, videos, online resources, and educational software.
- PowerPoint presentations make lessons visual and engaging
- YouTube videos provide authentic listening material
- Google Forms can be used for quick quizzes
- Padlet and Jamboard enable collaborative writing activities
CALL — Computer Assisted Language Learning
📖 Definition
CALL refers to the use of
computers and computer-based programs to teach and learn language. It includes educational software, online exercises, and interactive platforms designed specifically for language learning.
Types of CALL:
- Behaviouristic CALL (1960s-70s): Drill-and-practice programs, grammar exercises
- Communicative CALL (1980s): Word processors, language games, simulations
- Integrative CALL (1990s–present): Internet-based learning, multimedia, interactive tools
🏫 Examples of CALL Tools
- Duolingo: Gamified language learning app
- Grammarly: Grammar checking and feedback tool
- Quizlet: Digital flashcards for vocabulary
- Google Classroom: Assignment and feedback platform
- British Council LearnEnglish: Online exercises and audio
MALL — Mobile Assisted Language Learning
📖 Definition
MALL refers to language learning that uses
mobile devices — smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices. It extends learning
beyond the classroom and makes learning available anytime, anywhere.
- Most college students in India have smartphones → MALL is very relevant
- WhatsApp groups for vocabulary of the day, grammar quizzes
- Podcasts for listening practice
- Telegram channels for reading comprehension
- YouTube shorts for short grammar lessons
🏫 MALL in Ahilyanagar Classrooms
A teacher can create a WhatsApp group and post: one new word daily with meaning and example, a short grammar video from YouTube, a weekly MCQ quiz using Google Forms. Students practice on their own phones at home. This is MALL in action.
AI Tools in ELT — Including ChatGPT
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has entered education rapidly. In ELT, AI tools can be used both by teachers and students.
ChatGPT and AI Chatbots:
- Students can practice conversation with an AI chatbot
- AI can give immediate feedback on writing
- Teachers can use AI to generate exercises, quiz questions, and reading passages
- AI can explain grammar rules in simple language
- Students can ask AI to correct their essays or check their grammar
Other AI Tools for ELT:
- Grammarly (AI-powered): Writing feedback and suggestions
- Speechify / NaturalReader: Text-to-speech for pronunciation modeling
- Diffit: Generates differentiated reading materials
- Canva AI: Creates visual aids for classroom presentations
⚠️ Critical Perspective on AI in Education
While AI offers many benefits, there are concerns:
over-dependence may reduce critical thinking;
academic dishonesty (students submitting AI-generated essays);
digital divide — not all students have reliable internet access. Teachers must use AI as a
supplement, not a substitute for real learning.
Comparison: CALL vs MALL
| Feature | CALL | MALL |
|---|
| Device | Desktop/Laptop computers | Smartphones/Tablets |
| Location | Computer lab, classroom | Anywhere — home, bus, anywhere |
| Flexibility | Limited to fixed locations | Highly flexible and portable |
| Access | Computer + Internet | Smartphone + Data |
| India Context | Common in urban colleges | More accessible in rural areas |
Quick Revision — Unit II Key Terms
- Approach
Theory/philosophy of teaching
- Method
Systematic plan based on approach
- Technique
Specific classroom activity
- GTM
Grammar + Translation focus
- Direct Method
No mother tongue; real objects
- Structural Method
Graded patterns + drills
- CLT
Communication as goal
- Communicative Competence
Dell Hymes; real-world use
- MI Theory
Gardner; 8 intelligences
- CALL
Computer-based language learning
- MALL
Mobile-based language learning
- AI in ELT
ChatGPT, Grammarly, etc.
Expected University Questions — Unit II
Based on examination patterns for MA English ELLT Paper
Long Answer Questions
- Describe the Grammar Translation Method. What are its advantages and limitations? How does CLT overcome its limitations?
- Explain Communicative Language Teaching in detail. Discuss its principles, activities, and relevance to Indian classrooms.
- Differentiate between Method, Approach, and Technique with suitable examples.
- Discuss the role of technology (ICT/CALL/MALL) in modern English Language Teaching.
- Explain Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences and its application in the ELT classroom.
Short Notes
- The Direct Method
- Structural Method and pattern drills
- CALL vs MALL
- AI tools in ELT (ChatGPT)
- Communicative Competence (Dell Hymes)
- Linguistic Intelligence in Gardner's MI Theory
Common Student Mistakes — Unit II
- Mixing up "Approach" and "Method" — remember: approach is theory, method is plan
- Saying "GTM develops communication skills" — GTM ignores speaking and listening completely
- Confusing CALL and MALL — CALL = computers; MALL = mobile phones
- Not writing a classroom example for each method — examiners expect examples
- Listing all 8 MI intelligences without explaining their application in ELT
- Forgetting that CLT developed from the work of Dell Hymes
Unit III · Topic 1
Teaching Vocabulary
Why Vocabulary Teaching is Important
Vocabulary is the building block of language. Without words, there is no communication. David Wilkins famously said: "Without grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed."
📖 Definition
Vocabulary teaching is the process of helping learners
acquire, understand, retain, and use new words in meaningful contexts. It includes teaching not just meaning, but also pronunciation, spelling, grammar behavior (noun/verb/adjective), and collocation (words that go together).
Types of Vocabulary
- Active Vocabulary: Words students can use in speech and writing
- Passive Vocabulary: Words students recognize when they see/hear them but may not use
- High-Frequency Words: Common words used in everyday language (e.g., the, have, go)
- Academic Vocabulary: Words used in academic texts (e.g., analyze, evaluate, significant)
Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary
- Contextual Clues: Students guess meaning from the surrounding text
- Realia: Real objects brought to class (show a mango to teach "mango")
- Pictures and Visuals: Images, flashcards, diagrams
- Word Maps / Mind Maps: Connecting a word to synonyms, antonyms, and examples
- Semantic Fields: Grouping related words (fruits, vegetables, transport)
- Word Formation: Teaching prefixes, suffixes, and roots
- Vocabulary Notebooks: Students maintain their own word journals
- Word Games: Crosswords, word searches, Scrabble, Pictionary
- Digital Flashcards: Using apps like Quizlet for spaced repetition
🏫 Indian Classroom Example
Teaching the word "benevolent" → Teacher writes the word on the board → Shows picture of Mother Teresa helping the poor → Gives a sentence: "The benevolent king gave food to the poor." → Students write their own sentence → Student pairs discuss a "benevolent person" they know. Multiple exposures = better retention.
Principles of Effective Vocabulary Teaching
- Teach words in context, not in isolation
- Multiple encounters with a word help retention (repetition in different contexts)
- Teach both form (spelling/pronunciation) and meaning
- Active use of new words through speaking and writing tasks
- Teach collocations — words that go together ("make a decision", not "do a decision")
Unit III · Topic 2
Teaching Pronunciation
Importance of Pronunciation
Pronunciation affects how clearly and confidently a student communicates. Poor pronunciation can cause misunderstanding even when grammar and vocabulary are correct. Example: "desert" vs "dessert" — a single vowel change changes the meaning entirely.
📖 Definition
Pronunciation teaching helps learners produce
correct sounds, stress, rhythm, and intonation in the target language. The goal is
intelligibility — being understood — rather than a perfect native-like accent.
Key Aspects of Pronunciation
- Phonemes: Individual sounds (/p/, /b/, /ʃ/ for "sh")
- Word Stress: Which syllable gets emphasis (RE-cord vs re-CORD)
- Sentence Stress: Which words in a sentence are stressed
- Intonation: Rising and falling tone patterns (questions vs statements)
- Connected Speech: How words link together in natural speech
Techniques for Teaching Pronunciation
- Minimal Pairs: Contrasting similar sounds (ship/sheep, bit/beat)
- Listen and Repeat: Audio or teacher model + student repetition
- Phoneme Charts: IPA chart displayed in class for reference
- Tongue Twisters: Fun practice for difficult sounds
- Audio/Video Modeling: Authentic recordings of native and non-native speakers
- Shadowing: Students listen to a recording and repeat simultaneously
- Reading Aloud: Controlled practice of connected speech
🏫 Common Problems for Marathi/Hindi Students
- Difficulty with /v/ vs /w/ (vine vs wine)
- Adding vowel sounds before consonant clusters ("sschool" instead of "school")
- Word stress errors ("DEvelop" instead of "deVELop")
- Not distinguishing /æ/ (cat) from /ɑː/ (cart)
Unit III · Topic 3
Teaching Grammar
What is Grammar Teaching?
📖 Definition
Grammar teaching is the process of helping learners understand and use the
rules of language structure — tenses, articles, prepositions, sentence patterns — accurately in communication.
Deductive vs Inductive Grammar Teaching
| Feature | Deductive (Rule-first) | Inductive (Examples-first) |
|---|
| Sequence | Rule → Examples → Practice | Examples → Discover Rule → Practice |
| Teacher Role | Explains rule directly | Provides examples, guides discovery |
| Student Role | Listens and applies | Analyzes and discovers |
| Suits | Complex rules, beginners | Pattern-based rules, advanced learners |
| Example | Teacher: "Past tense = V+ed" then gives examples | Teacher: Shows 10 past tense sentences; students find the rule |
PPP Model for Grammar Teaching
The PPP Model (Presentation → Practice → Production) is a popular framework:
- Presentation: Teacher introduces the grammar point with context (a short text or picture)
- Practice: Students do controlled exercises (fill in blanks, sentence transformation)
- Production: Students use the grammar point freely in speaking or writing tasks
🏫 Example: Teaching Present Perfect
Presentation: "I have visited Mumbai three times." — context: talking about life experience
Practice: Fill in blanks: "She _____ (see) that film twice."
Production: "Tell your partner about three things you have done in your life."
Unit III · Topic 4
Teaching the Four Language Skills
Overview
Language has four core skills divided into receptive (input) and productive (output) skills:
- Receptive Skills: Listening and Reading (we receive language)
- Productive Skills: Speaking and Writing (we produce language)
1. Teaching Listening
Why Listening is Important
Listening is the most used language skill in daily life. We spend about
40-50% of communication time listening. Yet it is the most neglected skill in traditional Indian classrooms.
Types of Listening:
- Intensive Listening: Close, detailed listening for specific information
- Extensive Listening: Relaxed listening for general meaning (e.g., listening to radio)
- Interactive Listening: Listening while also participating (conversation, discussion)
Stages of a Listening Lesson:
- Pre-Listening: Activate background knowledge; discuss topic; preview questions
- While-Listening: Listen for gist; listen for specific details; take notes
- Post-Listening: Discussion; summary; follow-up task
🏫 Classroom Activities
Listen to an audio news report → answer True/False questions → discuss the main issue in pairs. Or: Watch a short YouTube clip without subtitles → reconstruct the main points from memory.
2. Teaching Speaking
Why Speaking is Important
Speaking is the most visible skill — it is how people judge our English proficiency. Yet many Indian students who have studied English for 10+ years cannot speak fluently due to
lack of practice opportunities and
fear of mistakes.
Types of Speaking Activities:
- Controlled Practice: Dialogue practice, repetition drills
- Guided Practice: Role-play with prompts, structured debates
- Free Practice: Open discussion, presentations, impromptu speaking
Classroom Activities:
- Role-plays: Doctor-patient, interview scenarios
- Just a Minute (JAM): Speak on a topic for one minute
- Group Discussions on current topics
- Storytelling from pictures
- Debates: "Social media is harmful to students" — for/against
3. Teaching Reading
Why Reading is Important
Reading builds vocabulary, improves grammar, and develops critical thinking. It is a key academic skill for university students.
Types of Reading:
- Skimming: Reading quickly to get the general idea ("What is this text about?")
- Scanning: Reading to find specific information quickly (a name, date, or number)
- Intensive Reading: Careful, detailed reading for full understanding
- Extensive Reading: Reading large amounts for pleasure and fluency development
Stages of a Reading Lesson:
- Pre-Reading: Preview the text, predict content, activate schema
- While-Reading: Read for gist, read for detail, vocabulary in context
- Post-Reading: Discussion, summary, response task, creative follow-up
4. Teaching Writing
Why Writing is Important
Writing develops logical thinking, helps organize ideas, and is essential for academic success. It is a productive skill requiring practice and feedback.
Types of Writing:
- Controlled Writing: Sentence completion, gap-fill, guided paragraph writing
- Guided Writing: Writing with prompts, outlines, or model texts
- Free Writing: Essays, stories, articles, reports — independent composition
Process Approach to Writing:
- Prewriting: Brainstorming, mind-mapping, outlining
- Drafting: Writing the first version
- Revising: Improving content, structure, and clarity
- Editing: Correcting grammar, spelling, and punctuation
- Publishing: Sharing the final product
🏫 Writing Activity
Task: "Write a letter to your college principal requesting permission for a study tour." → Students brainstorm → Draft → Peer review → Revise → Final submission. This process approach develops real writing competence.
Unit III · Topic 5
Testing and Evaluation in ELT
Testing vs Evaluation — The Key Difference
| Feature | Testing | Evaluation |
|---|
| Definition | A formal instrument to measure language ability | Broad judgment about teaching and learning |
| Scope | Narrow — measures specific skills at a point in time | Wide — includes tests, observations, portfolios, feedback |
| Purpose | Measure performance; assign grades | Improve teaching and learning |
| Form | Exam paper, quiz, oral test | Observation, feedback, portfolio, self-assessment |
| Result | Score / Grade | Judgment about quality / progress |
Simply put: All tests are part of evaluation, but not all evaluation involves tests.
Formative vs Summative Assessment
📖 Formative Assessment
Assessment
during the learning process. It provides ongoing feedback to help students improve. It is
assessment FOR learning.
Examples: weekly quizzes, class discussions, homework review, peer feedback, progress tests.
📖 Summative Assessment
Assessment
at the end of a learning period. It measures what students have achieved. It is
assessment OF learning.
Examples: semester exams, final exams, end-of-unit tests, standardized tests.
| Feature | Formative | Summative |
|---|
| Timing | During learning | End of learning period |
| Purpose | Improve learning | Measure achievement |
| Feedback | Frequent and immediate | Final grade/result |
| Stakes | Low — no major grade impact | High — determines final grade |
| Indian Example | Class test, viva, assignment | Semester final exam, board exam |
Types of Tests in ELT
- Placement Test: Given before a course begins to place students in the right level
- Diagnostic Test: Identifies specific learning difficulties/needs at the start
- Achievement Test: Measures what students have learned in a specific course
- Proficiency Test: Measures general level of language ability (e.g., IELTS, TOEFL)
- Progress Test: Measures improvement over time during a course
Qualities of a Good Test (VPREP)
A good language test must have these five qualities:
- Validity: The test measures what it claims to measure. A grammar test must test grammar — not general knowledge. "Does it test what it should test?"
- Reliability: The test gives consistent results. If tested twice in similar conditions, a student should get similar scores. "Can we trust the results?"
- Practicality: The test is feasible — easy to administer, score, and analyze with available resources and time. "Is it manageable?"
- Authenticity: Test tasks are similar to real-life language use. "Does it reflect real communication?"
- Washback (Backwash): The test has a positive effect on teaching and learning. Good tests motivate students to learn the right things. "Does the test encourage good learning?"
Types of Test Questions
- Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ): One correct option from four. Objective, easy to mark. Tests knowledge and comprehension.
- True/False Questions: Student judges a statement as correct or incorrect.
- Fill in the Blanks: Tests specific grammar or vocabulary knowledge.
- Matching Questions: Match terms with definitions or sentences with completions.
- Short Answer Questions: 2–3 sentence responses testing understanding.
- Essay Questions: Extended writing testing organization, argument, and language use.
- Cloze Test: A passage with regular words removed — students fill in the missing words.
- Oral/Viva Test: Spoken assessment of speaking and language ability.
- Portfolio Assessment: Collection of student work over time — shows progress.
🏫 Indian University Context
In Maharashtra universities, the typical exam pattern for MA English includes:
Internal Assessment: Assignments, presentations, class tests (formative + summative)
Semester Exam: Long answer questions (15–20 marks), short notes (5–7 marks), MCQs
A good university paper maintains balance — not just testing memory (lower Bloom's) but also understanding and analysis (higher Bloom's).
Quick Revision — Unit III Key Terms
- Active Vocabulary
Words students can use
- Passive Vocabulary
Words students recognize
- PPP Model
Present → Practice → Produce
- Minimal Pairs
Pronunciation contrast (ship/sheep)
- Skimming
Quick reading for gist
- Scanning
Quick search for specific info
- Formative
Assessment during learning
- Summative
Assessment at end
- Validity
Tests what it should
- Reliability
Consistent results
- Washback
Test's effect on learning
- Cloze Test
Gap-fill passage test
Expected University Questions — Unit III
Based on examination patterns for MA English ELLT Paper
Long Answer Questions
- Discuss various techniques for teaching vocabulary in the English language classroom. Give suitable Indian classroom examples.
- Explain the four language skills (LSRW). Discuss methods and activities for developing each skill in an Indian college classroom.
- What is the difference between testing and evaluation? Explain formative and summative assessment with examples.
- Discuss the qualities of a good language test. Illustrate with reference to university examination practices.
- Explain the teaching of pronunciation with reference to common challenges faced by Marathi/Hindi medium students.
- Compare and contrast deductive and inductive approaches to grammar teaching.
Short Notes
- The Cloze Test
- Washback effect in language testing
- The Process Approach to writing
- Types of reading (Skimming and Scanning)
- Proficiency test vs Achievement test
- Role of vocabulary in ELT (Wilkins' famous quote)
- MALL in teaching speaking and listening
Model Answer Points — Qualities of a Good Test
- 5 qualities: Validity, Reliability, Practicality, Authenticity, Washback
- Validity = tests what it claims to test
- Reliability = consistent scores under similar conditions
- Practicality = feasible to administer and score
- Authenticity = real-life language tasks
- Washback = positive influence on teaching and learning
- Mention that no test is perfect — there are always trade-offs
Common Student Mistakes — Unit III
- Writing "Listening and Reading are productive skills" — they are RECEPTIVE skills
- Confusing "Summative" with "continuous" — summative is the final exam; continuous = formative
- Forgetting to explain all five qualities of a good test — if the question says "discuss qualities", all five must be covered
- Writing only "MCQ" as a type of test — examiners want at least 5–6 types with brief explanations
- Not distinguishing Placement Test from Diagnostic Test — placement assigns levels; diagnostic identifies problems
- Ignoring "Washback" — it is the most important and most often asked quality
Comprehensive Exam Revision
Key thinkers, terms, and connections across all three units
Key Thinkers
- B.F. Skinner — Behaviorism, Operant Conditioning
- Noam Chomsky — LAD, Universal Grammar
- Jean Piaget — Cognitive development stages
- Benjamin Bloom — Taxonomy of Learning
- Stephen Krashen — 5 Hypotheses of SLA
- Howard Gardner — Multiple Intelligences
- Dell Hymes — Communicative Competence
- David Wilkins — Vocabulary importance
Most Important Definitions
- CLT: Communication-centered teaching method
- Bloom's Taxonomy: Hierarchy of cognitive skills
- Krashen's i+1: Comprehensible input slightly above current level
- CALL: Computer-assisted language learning
- MALL: Mobile-assisted language learning
- Washback: Test's effect on teaching/learning
- Validity: Test measures what it should
Conceptual Connections
- Behaviorism → GTM and Structural Method
- Cognitivism → CLT and Communicative Approach
- Bloom's Taxonomy → Better test question design
- Krashen's Affective Filter → Importance of safe classroom
- MI Theory → Need for varied teaching activities
- CALL/MALL → Technology-enhanced CLT
- Formative Assessment → Washback in action
References
Select Bibliography
- Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching (4th ed.). Pearson Longman.
- Richards, J.C. & Rodgers, T.S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Krashen, S.D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press.
- Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. Longman.
- Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Basic Books.
- Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge University Press.
- Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology. Prentice Hall.