Introduction to Prose in the Renaissance and Neoclassical Period
This unit covers two examples of minor prose forms — the diary and the personal letter — from the 17th and early 18th centuries. These forms are "minor" in the literary hierarchy (as opposed to the "major" forms of epic, tragedy, novel) but they are enormously valuable as windows into the inner lives of real people from the past. They show us how educated 17th–18th century writers thought, felt, and expressed themselves in private — without the formal constraints of published literature.
- Historical value: Pepys's diary is one of the most important primary sources for the history of Restoration England — it records the Great Fire of London, the Plague of 1665, court gossip, political intrigue, and daily life in extraordinary detail
- Psychological value: Both diary and letter allow the writer to be more candid, more personal, more exploratory than in published work. Pepys confesses things he would never say in public; Swift's letters reveal an intimacy absent from his satirical writing
- Literary value: Both Pepys and Swift are brilliant writers — their prose style is vivid, immediate, and rich. The diary and letter form require the same skills of description, characterisation, and narrative as any literary form
- Cultural value: Both texts are snapshots of specific historical moments — January 1660 (the eve of the Restoration of Charles II) in Pepys; Swift's London life in 1710–13 in the Journal to Stella
A diary (from Latin diarium — daily record) is a personal, private record of daily events, thoughts, and feelings, written by the diarist for their own use (not for publication). Key features:
- Chronological structure: Organised by dates — each entry is dated
- Immediacy: Written close to the events described — the diarist has not had time to revise or reshape their perceptions
- Privacy: Written for oneself — therefore more candid and uncensored than public writing
- Range: Can include anything — the weather, meals, gossip, financial matters, spiritual reflections, political events, emotional states
- The diary tradition in English: Pepys (1660–1669); John Evelyn (contemporary with Pepys); Virginia Woolf (20th century). The diary became an important literary form from the 17th century onward.
A personal letter is written to a specific named recipient, combining the immediacy of the diary with the social awareness of addressing another person. Key features:
- Addressee: Written for a specific reader — this shapes the content and tone
- Immediacy combined with social awareness: More candid than published prose, but shaped by the relationship with the recipient
- The "epistolary" tradition: In the 17th–18th centuries, letters were a major literary form. The publication of correspondence was common — letters were semi-public even when seemingly private. Swift's Journal to Stella was clearly written with some awareness that it might be preserved and read by others.
- The epistolary novel: The letter form gave rise to the epistolary novel (a novel told entirely through letters) — Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1748) are the most famous examples.
Text 1: The Diary of Samuel Pepys
Samuel Pepys · January 1660 Entries · One of the Greatest Diaries in the English Language
Samuel Pepys (pronounced "Peeps") was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament who is best known for the extraordinary diary he kept between 1 January 1660 and 31 May 1669 — a period of nine and a half years. He stopped because his eyesight was failing and he feared that continued writing by candlelight would blind him completely (an irony, since his diary is primarily a visual record of the world around him).
- Born 1633 in London; died 1703
- Educated at St Paul's School, London, and Magdalene College, Cambridge
- Worked his way up from a modest background to become Secretary to the Admiralty — effectively the chief administrator of the Royal Navy
- A close associate of King Charles II and James II at court
- His diary covers the most turbulent decade in English history: the Restoration of Charles II (1660), the Great Plague (1665), the Great Fire of London (1666), the Second and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars
- The diary was written in shorthand (a modified version of Thomas Shelton's system) — it was not decoded and published until 1825, over 120 years after Pepys's death
- The diary is estimated at 1.25 million words — one of the longest personal diaries in the English language
January 1660 is one of the most historically significant months in English history. By this date:
- Cromwell had died in 1658; his son Richard had briefly succeeded him and then resigned
- England was in political chaos — nobody was sure who governed or what form the government should take
- General George Monck was marching his army south from Scotland — his intentions were unclear but he was the most powerful military figure in the country
- There was widespread expectation that Charles II might be restored to the throne — but nothing was certain
- Pepys is writing at the hinge of English history — the moment when the Puritan Commonwealth is about to give way to the Restoration monarchy
Reading Pepys's January 1660 entries, we are reading a real person's experience of living through one of history's great turning points — not knowing how things will turn out.
Pepys's Diary — The Student Who Journals Through Exam Season
Many Indian students keep a private notebook or journal during high-pressure periods — board exams, competitive exam preparation, college admissions. They write down not just study schedules but also their fears, their small victories, what they ate, who helped them, what news they heard. These journals are intensely personal — a record of an important period in their lives, written for no one but themselves.
Samuel Pepys's diary is exactly this — multiplied to a national scale. He was a young, ambitious man living through the most turbulent political period in English history (the Restoration), writing every night about his work, his meals, his wife, his worries, and the great events happening around him. Like a student's journal capturing exam day, Pepys captures January 1660 — the day before a historic change — from the inside. His diary teaches us that personal, private writing can become history's most valuable record. Jo dil se likha jaata hai, woh hamesha yaad rehta hai.
- Written in shorthand: Pepys used a modified Shelton shorthand system to record his diary — giving it privacy from prying eyes (his wife, his servants, his colleagues). Only after his death was it decoded.
- Written in the evenings: Pepys typically wrote his diary at the end of each day, summarising events while they were still fresh. Sometimes he wrote up several days at once.
- No thematic organisation: The diary is purely chronological — one day follows another. The reader has to piece together larger patterns and themes from the daily entries.
- Extraordinary range of subject matter: On the same page, Pepys might describe a political meeting, record what he ate for dinner, confess an adulterous thought, describe a musical performance, note the weather, and comment on a theatre performance. This breadth is both the diary's strength and its challenge.
- Combination of the public and the private: Pepys was at the centre of national events (the Restoration, the Navy's administration, court life) AND a private individual with domestic concerns, personal ambitions, and human weaknesses. The diary combines both dimensions seamlessly.
When Pepys begins his diary on 1 January 1660, he is 26 years old, newly married, and working as a clerk to his cousin Sir Edward Montagu (who will play a crucial role in the Restoration). He is at the beginning of his career — watching anxiously as the political situation around him unfolds.
Key January 1660 Entries and Themes
The dominant tone of January 1660 is anxious uncertainty. Nobody knows what will happen — will there be another civil war? Will Monck restore the king? Will the Rump Parliament reassert itself? Pepys is carefully watching all the political developments, noting rumours, recording conversations with people who have inside knowledge. He is a young man trying to read the political situation accurately so he can position himself correctly for whatever happens.
Key entries: He records meetings with Sir Edward Montagu; discussions about General Monck's march south; the dissolution and recall of the Long Parliament; the constant flux of political power. Every entry contains political intelligence — because for Pepys, getting the politics right is a matter of personal survival.
Alongside the momentous political events, Pepys records the utterly mundane: what he ate ("a good shoulder of mutton"), who he drank with at the tavern, what plays he saw, what music he heard, what his wife argued with him about, how much money he spent and had. These domestic details are what make the diary so vivid and so modern — we recognise Pepys as a human being like ourselves, not a historical figure. His salary worries, his social ambitions, his pleasure in good food and music, his occasional pettiness — all are honestly recorded.
Pepys is a brilliant observer of people. His diary is full of sharp, funny, occasionally cruel character sketches of the people he encounters: colleagues at the Navy Office, courtiers, politicians, tradesmen, actors, musicians. He notices how people dress, how they speak, what their social pretensions are, who is rising and who is falling. This social acuity is one of the diary's greatest pleasures.
Pepys is deeply ambitious and remarkably honest about it. January 1660 shows him calculating his position carefully — watching which way the political wind is blowing, making sure he is aligned with the right people. He is also capable of genuine self-reflection — occasional admissions that he has behaved badly, been vain, spent too much money, drunk too much. This combination of ambition and self-awareness makes him a psychologically rich subject.
- Directness and immediacy: Pepys writes with urgent directness — no rhetorical flourish, no classical learning on display. He writes as he thinks: quickly, honestly, without polishing.
- Concrete specificity: He names people, places, foods, prices, times of day. His diary is full of proper nouns — it is rooted in a specific, verifiable world.
- The paratactic sentence: Pepys often strings events together with "and" — "I did this, and then this, and then this." This additive structure creates the sense of life tumbling forward without pause.
- Candour and self-exposure: Pepys confesses things that no published writer would admit — adulterous desires, petty arguments with his wife, financial anxieties, social embarrassments. The diary form allows this candour because it was (he thought) private.
- Mixture of registers: In the same paragraph Pepys can be political analyst, social gossip, food critic, and emotional diarist. The range is extraordinary.
- Phrase "and so to bed": Many entries end with some version of "and so to bed" — a characteristic closing formula that became associated with Pepys and has become one of the most quoted phrases in English diary literature.
- History lived from the inside: The diary gives us the Restoration from the perspective of someone living through it — not knowing the outcome, reading the signs, anxiously watching
- The intersection of public and private: National history and personal history are inseparable in Pepys's diary — great events are always experienced through a personal lens
- Social mobility and ambition: Pepys is a self-made man watching his chance — the diary records his careful navigation of a world in transition
- The texture of daily life in 17th-century London: Food, drink, theatre, music, weather, gossip, work — the diary is an unparalleled social history
- Honesty and self-knowledge: Pepys's willingness to record his own weaknesses alongside his strengths makes the diary psychologically rich
- Discuss The Diary of Samuel Pepys as a historical and literary document. What are the key features of his diary style? What makes it valuable as both history and literature?
- Analyse the January 1660 entries of Pepys's Diary. What political and personal concerns dominate these entries? How does Pepys combine public events with private life?
- Discuss Pepys's prose style. What are its key characteristics? How does his style reflect the spontaneous, private nature of the diary form?
- Why is January 1660 historically significant as the starting point of Pepys's diary?
- What is the shorthand Pepys used for his diary and why is it significant?
- Discuss the diary as a literary form. How does it differ from other prose forms?
⚡ Quick Revision — Pepys
- Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) — naval administrator; diary 1 Jan 1660 – 31 May 1669; written in shorthand; published 1825
- January 1660 — eve of Restoration; political chaos; General Monck marching south; great historical uncertainty
- Opening entry 1 Jan 1660: begins with own health → wife → political situation — public to private movement
- Style: direct, immediate, concrete, candid, paratactic ("and…and…and"); "and so to bed" closing
- Key themes: history from the inside; public + private; social ambition; daily life in 17th-century London; self-knowledge
Text 2: The Journal to Stella
Jonathan Swift · Letters I, II & III · c. 1710–1711 · London Life & Political Intrigue
Jonathan Swift (1667–1745) is the greatest satirist in the English language. We have already studied him in the context of Gulliver's Travels and A Modest Proposal. But the Journal to Stella reveals an entirely different — and much warmer — side of Swift: the private man, the affectionate friend, the witty correspondent.
Esther Johnson (1681–1728) — known as "Stella" (Swift's pet name for her) — was Swift's closest friend and companion for most of his adult life. Their relationship is one of the great mysteries of English literary biography:
- Esther was the daughter of a servant in the household of Sir William Temple (Swift's early patron)
- Swift met her when she was about 8 years old and he was her teacher — he remained her mentor and closest friend for 40 years
- Whether they were ever secretly married is disputed — scholars have debated it for centuries without resolution
- She moved to Dublin (where Swift was Dean of St. Patrick's) to be near him, and they met regularly — always with a third person present (avoiding gossip)
- She is also addressed as "MD" in the Journal — standing for "My Dear" or possibly "My Dears" (as the letters were also sometimes read by her companion Rebecca Dingley)
- When Stella died in 1728, Swift was devastated — he wrote a tribute to her that is one of the most moving pieces of prose in English
Between September 1710 and June 1713, Swift wrote a series of long letters to Esther Johnson in Dublin, describing his daily life in London. He was in London as the political journalist and propagandist for the Tory government of Robert Harley (Earl of Oxford) and Henry St. John (Viscount Bolingbroke). He edited the Tory journal The Examiner and wrote political pamphlets. He was at the very centre of English political and literary life.
These letters — never intended for publication — were first published in 1766, after Swift's death. They were written partly as a journal (recording his daily activities) and partly as intimate conversation — he imagined Stella reading each letter over breakfast.
Journal to Stella — Letters Home from a City Far Away
Think of any student or young professional from a smaller town — Ahmednagar, Nashik, Aurangabad — who has moved to Mumbai, Pune, or Delhi for work or study. Every week they write long messages or calls home to their closest friend or family member — describing the city, their new colleagues, the political and social world they are navigating, and always asking: "How are you? Are you eating properly? Don't forget to take your medicine."
Swift's Journal to Stella is exactly this. Despite being at the centre of great political events in London — meeting ministers, editing newspapers, shaping policy — Swift never forgets Stella in Dublin. Every letter asks about her health, scolds her gently for not taking care of herself, and shares the day's excitement with the intimacy of a close friend. The "little language" (their private code words) is exactly like the inside jokes, nicknames, and abbreviations that any two close friends develop over years. The Journal to Stella shows us that no matter how important or busy a person becomes, the deepest human need is to say goodnight to someone who truly knows you.
- "Little Language": Swift uses a private baby-talk or code language in the letters — "MD" (My Dear/My Dears), "Pdfr" (possibly "Poor dear foolish rogue" — Swift's self-designation), "Nite" for "night," "Presto" (Stella's nickname for Swift). This private language creates a world of extraordinary intimacy between two people.
- Daily record: Like Pepys, Swift records his daily activities — where he dined, whom he met, what political events were happening, what books he was writing. The letters are both diary and letter simultaneously.
- Political intelligence: Swift had extraordinary access to the highest levels of government — he dined regularly with Ministers, had private conversations with Harley and Bolingbroke, was consulted on political strategy. The Journal is one of the most valuable records of Tory politics in the reign of Queen Anne.
- Literary gossip: Swift knew everyone in London literary society — Pope, Gay, Addison, Steele, Arbuthnot. The letters are full of contemporary literary gossip.
- Affection and anxiety: The letters reveal Swift's genuine love for Stella — his anxiety when her letters are delayed, his pleasure at her replies, his detailed questions about her health. These are among the most tender letters in English literature.
The first letter begins with Swift's arrival in London from Ireland. He describes:
- The journey: His travel from Ireland to Chester and then to London — the details of sea crossing, accommodation, road conditions. Swift is a careful observer of physical conditions.
- His reception in London: His reintroduction to London society — whom he has already met, which politicians have been friendly, what the political situation looks like. He is clearly eager to re-establish his position in London literary and political life.
- The political situation: Queen Anne's government is in transition — the Whigs are falling, the Tories rising. Swift, as a Tory sympathiser, describes this with barely concealed excitement.
- Tender concern for Stella: Despite being at the centre of great events, Swift repeatedly enquires about Stella's health — she was often unwell — and urges her to take care of herself, not to ride too much, to stay warm.
Letter II deepens the portrait of Swift's London life:
- Political meetings: Swift has now met Robert Harley (the Tory leader, soon to be Lord Treasurer) — a crucial meeting. Harley is charming to Swift, flatters him, makes him feel valued. Swift describes the encounter with careful, slightly disbelieving pleasure — he is surprised that a great minister treats him as an equal.
- The literary world: Swift describes encounters with Addison, Steele, and other literary figures. His relationships are complex — he likes Addison personally but is politically opposed to him (Addison is a Whig). These encounters show the literary world's intersection with the political one.
- Self-presentation: Swift presents himself with his characteristic mixture of confidence and self-deprecating irony. He is clearly enjoying his importance in London — but he never lets Stella see pure vanity. He always deflects with a joke.
- The "little language": The baby-talk and private codes appear throughout — "Nite MD" (goodnight, my dears), "Presto" for himself, "Pdfr" as self-designation. These codes create a private world between Swift and Stella that excludes everyone else.
By Letter III, Swift is fully established in London political and literary life:
- Political power and influence: Swift is now writing for The Examiner and advising the Tory ministry. He describes political events — parliamentary proceedings, ministerial meetings, the struggle between Tories and Whigs — with the authority of an insider. His influence is real and he knows it.
- Social life: Descriptions of dinners with great men — Lord Bolingbroke, Lord Oxford (Harley), various dukes and bishops. Swift is moving in the highest social circles. He describes these encounters with a carefully managed combination of pride and irony — he is pleased to be there but never entirely comfortable with his own vanity.
- Concern for Stella: Even in Letter III, with all his London success, Swift's anxiety about Stella's health is prominent. He scolds her gently for not taking better care of herself; he asks for detailed accounts of her health; he reminds her to stay warm and not ride in cold weather. The private, personal affection persists beneath the public busyness.
- London life: Vivid descriptions of London's streets, coffee houses, shops, the theatre, the parks. Swift is an acute observer of city life — he notices how London works, who moves through it and how.
- Conversational intimacy: Swift writes as if Stella is in the room — he answers her (imagined) questions, responds to her (anticipated) reactions, explains himself as if to someone who knows him completely
- The "little language": Baby-talk and private codes create a world of exclusive intimacy — only Swift and Stella (and her companion Rebecca Dingley) fully understand all the references
- Irony and self-mockery: Even in private, Swift cannot resist irony — he mocks his own vanity, deflates his own importance, undercuts his own seriousness. This irony is gentle and affectionate in the letters, not savage as in his public satire
- Precise observation: Like Pepys, Swift notices specific details — what people said, what they wore, what they ate, how much things cost, what the weather was. These details give the letters their historical texture
- Political acuity: Even in personal letters, Swift's political intelligence is formidable — he analyses motives, reads character, anticipates moves. The Journal is an informal political commentary as well as a personal letter
- Genuine warmth: The Journal reveals a warmth and tenderness that is largely absent from Swift's published work. In his letters to Stella, he is not the "mad, proud, savage" Dean that his satirical persona suggests — he is a loving friend
- Friendship and intimacy: The primary theme — the Journal is a sustained expression of one of the deepest personal relationships in English literary history. Swift's love for Stella is genuine, complex, and enduring.
- Power and proximity to power: Swift is fascinated by political power and enjoys being close to it — but he is also clear-eyed about its limitations and dangers
- The public and private self: The contrast between the public Swift (the political satirist, the Dean) and the private Swift (the tender friend, the playful correspondent) is the Journal's central revelation
- London vs. Ireland: Swift is always aware that London is not his real home — he will return to Dublin, to his role as Dean. The letters have a quality of reporting back from an exciting but temporary world
- Anxiety and vulnerability: Beneath the wit and the social success, Swift is anxious — about Stella's health, about his own position, about the stability of the political world he has entered
- Discuss The Journal to Stella as a literary and historical document. What aspects of Swift's personality and his London world does it reveal?
- Analyse Swift's use of the "little language" in The Journal to Stella. What does this private code reveal about his relationship with Stella?
- Compare The Journal to Stella with Pepys's Diary. What do the two texts have in common as examples of personal prose writing? How do they differ in style and purpose?
- Who was "Stella"? What was her relationship with Jonathan Swift?
- What is the "little language" in Swift's Journal to Stella?
- What aspects of Swift's personality does the Journal to Stella reveal that his published satirical works do not?
⚡ Quick Revision — Journal to Stella
- Written 1710–13; letters from London to Esther Johnson ("Stella") in Dublin; published 1766 (posthumous)
- Stella = Esther Johnson (1681–1728) — Swift's lifelong companion; possibly secretly married; died 1728
- Context: Swift in London as Tory political writer; editing The Examiner; advising Harley and Bolingbroke
- "Little language" — private baby-talk codes; "MD" (My Dear), "Nite", "Presto", "Pdfr" — creates exclusive intimacy
- Letters I–III: arrival in London, meeting Harley, establishing political connections, literary encounters, daily life
- Style: conversational, ironic, precise, warm; contrasts with the public savagery of Gulliver's Travels
- Key themes: friendship; power and proximity; public vs. private self; London vs. Ireland; anxiety and vulnerability
| Feature | Pepys — The Diary | Swift — Journal to Stella |
|---|---|---|
| Form | Personal diary — written for himself; never intended for others | Personal letter (journal-letter) — written for Stella; not intended for publication |
| Audience | Himself alone (written in shorthand for privacy) | Stella (and her companion Dingley) — a private, known audience |
| Historical Period | January 1660 — eve of Restoration; political chaos | 1710–1713 — Queen Anne's reign; Tory government under Harley |
| Writer's Position | Young, ambitious clerk — watching events, trying to read the political situation | Established writer at the centre of political power — advising ministers, editing the Tory press |
| Tone | Direct, candid, energetic, sometimes anxious — honest about weaknesses | Warm, witty, affectionate, ironic — playful and intimate with a loved companion |
| Central Relationship | The writer with himself — self-examination | The writer with Stella — friendship and love |
| Historical Value | Primary source for Restoration history — the Plague, the Fire, court life, Navy administration | Primary source for Tory politics under Queen Anne — Swift's political role, London literary life |
- Compare and contrast the diary style of Pepys with the letter style of Swift's Journal to Stella. What do these two forms of personal prose writing reveal about their writers?
- Both Pepys's Diary and Swift's Journal to Stella combine the personal and the political. Discuss with reference to specific entries/letters.